Changes

* see also [[Rationing]]

* see also [[Rationing]]

Civilian consumption increased 22% during the war, though there were many shortages in critical areas.  Production stopped on many civilian items, such as automobiles, new houses, and new appliances. Many commodities, such as meat, sugar, butter, coffee, gasoline, tires, shoes and clothing were rationed.  Local schools set up stations where people could get their ration coupons (with teachers handling the paperwork.)  Each person (regardless of age) received the same food and clothing coupons.  To purchase an item three things were needed: the storekeeper had to have the item in the first place, the purchaser had to have the cash, and had to have the coupons. Most automobile drivers received coupons for 3 gallons a week; those who could document special needs received extra gasoline coupons. (There was plenty of gasoline; the rationing was an efficient way to ration automobile tires, with rubber in very short supply.) Bread, milk and beer were not rationed. People eating in restaurants had to pay with cash and ration coupons. Rationing was generally supported by the civilian population, although there was some [[black market]] activity, that is, purchase of an item without the coupons. The government hunted down and prosecuted black marketeers.  There was much "gray market" activity--that is family and neighbors selling or trading ration coupons; that was technically illegal but rarely prosecuted.  

Civilian consumption increased 22% during the war, though there were many shortages in critical areas.  Production stopped on many civilian items, such as automobiles, new houses, and new appliances. Many commodities, such as meat, sugar, butter, coffee, gasoline, tires, shoes and clothing were rationed.  Local schools set up stations where people could get their ration coupons (with teachers handling the paperwork.)  Each person (regardless of age) received the same food and clothing coupons.  To purchase an item three things were needed: the storekeeper had to have the item in the first place, the purchaser had to have the cash, and had to have the coupons. Most automobile drivers received coupons for 3 gallons a week; those who could document special needs received extra gasoline coupons. (There was plenty of gasoline; the rationing was an efficient way to ration automobile tires, with rubber in very short supply.) Bread, milk and beer were not rationed. People eating in restaurants had to pay with cash and ration coupons. Rationing was generally supported by the civilian population, although there was some [[black market]] activity, that is, purchase of an item without the coupons. The government hunted down and prosecuted black marketeers.  There was much "gray market" activity—that is family and neighbors selling or trading ration coupons; that was technically illegal but rarely prosecuted.  

===Labor Unions===

===Labor Unions===

The war mobilization also changed the [[Congress of Industrial Organizations|CIO's]] relationship with both employers and the national government; much less is known about the rival [[American Federation of Labor|AFL]] during the war.<ref>Lichtenstein, ''Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II'' (2003) </ref>

The war mobilization also changed the [[Congress of Industrial Organizations|CIO's]] relationship with both employers and the national government; much less is known about the rival [[American Federation of Labor|AFL]] during the war.<ref>Lichtenstein, ''Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II'' (2003)</ref>

Nearly all the unions that belonged to the CIO were fully supportive of both the war effort and of the Roosevelt administration. However the coal miners led by John L Lewis, who had taken an isolationist stand in the years leading up to the war in a show of solidarity with the Soviet Union. Because Roosevelt was helping to defeat Germany, and Germany was allied to Russia, the left wing unionists tried to slow down the war effort through strikes in 1940-41. As soon as Russia was attacked by Germany they changed positions and became all-out supporters of the war. Indeed the leftists tried to stop rank-and-file members from striking for higher wages because that would slow the flow of war material to Russia.  The CIO supported a wartime no-strike pledge that aimed to eliminate not only major strikes for new contracts, but also the innumerable small strikes called by [[shop steward]]s and local union leadership to protest particular grievances.

Nearly all the unions that belonged to the CIO were fully supportive of both the war effort and of the Roosevelt administration. However the coal miners led by John L Lewis, who had taken an isolationist stand in the years leading up to the war in a show of solidarity with the Soviet Union. Because Roosevelt was helping to defeat Germany, and Germany was allied to Russia, the left wing unionists tried to slow down the war effort through strikes in 1940-41. As soon as Russia was attacked by Germany they changed positions and became all-out supporters of the war. Indeed the leftists tried to stop rank-and-file members from striking for higher wages because that would slow the flow of war material to Russia.  The CIO supported a wartime no-strike pledge that aimed to eliminate not only major strikes for new contracts, but also the innumerable small strikes called by [[shop steward]]s and local union leadership to protest particular grievances.

==Civilian support for war effort==

==Civilian support for war effort==

A major government policy was to create official-sounding roles for civilians so they could have a sense of participation in the war. This was especially important for middle class citizens who did not work in munitions industries.  Most of the "jobs" were artificial--such as hundreds of spotters in Illinois looking for enemy aircraft (which presumaby had been missed by the hundreds of spotters in Indiana and points East. In any case the government knew full well that no German planes had the range to approach the U.S. coastline.)  The [[Civil Air Patrol]] was established, which enrolled civilian spotters in reconnaissance. Towers were built in coastal and border towns, and spotters were trained to recognize enemy aircraft, so as to report if any were seen. Blackouts were practiced in every city, even those far from the coast.  All lighting had to be extinguished to avoid helping the enemy in targeting at night.  The main purpose was to remind people that there was a war on and to provide activities that would engage the civil spirit of millions of people not otherwise involved in the war effort. In large part, this effort was successful, sometimes almost to a fault, such as the Plains states where many dedicated aircraft spotters took up their posts night after night watching the skies in an area of the country that no enemy aircraft of that time could possibly hope to reach.<ref>Campbell, ''Women at War with America'' (1984)</ref>  

A major government policy was to create official-sounding roles for civilians so they could have a sense of participation in the war. This was especially important for middle class citizens who did not work in munitions industries.  Most of the "jobs" were artificial—such as hundreds of spotters in Illinois looking for enemy aircraft (which presumaby had been missed by the hundreds of spotters in Indiana and points East. In any case the government knew full well that no German planes had the range to approach the U.S. coastline.)  The [[Civil Air Patrol]] was established, which enrolled civilian spotters in reconnaissance. Towers were built in coastal and border towns, and spotters were trained to recognize enemy aircraft, so as to report if any were seen. Blackouts were practiced in every city, even those far from the coast.  All lighting had to be extinguished to avoid helping the enemy in targeting at night.  The main purpose was to remind people that there was a war on and to provide activities that would engage the civil spirit of millions of people not otherwise involved in the war effort. In large part, this effort was successful, sometimes almost to a fault, such as the Plains states where many dedicated aircraft spotters took up their posts night after night watching the skies in an area of the country that no enemy aircraft of that time could possibly hope to reach.<ref>Campbell, ''Women at War with America'' (1984)</ref>  

The [[United Service Organizations]], or USO, was founded in 1941 in response to a request from [[President Franklin D. Roosevelt]] to provide morale and recreation services to uniformed military personnel.  This request led six civilian agencies -- the [[Salvation Army]], [[Young Men's Christian Association]], [[Young Women's Christian Association]], [[National Catholic Community Service]], National [[Travelers Aid]] Association and the [[National Jewish Welfare Board]] -- to unite in support of the troops.   

The [[United Service Organizations]], or USO, was founded in 1941 in response to a request from [[President Franklin D. Roosevelt]] to provide morale and recreation services to uniformed military personnel.  This request led six civilian agencies—the [[Salvation Army]], [[Young Men's Christian Association]], [[Young Women's Christian Association]], [[National Catholic Community Service]], National [[Travelers Aid]] Association and the [[National Jewish Welfare Board]]—to unite in support of the troops.   

==The draft==

==The draft==

In 1940 Congress passed the first draft legislation, which was led by Grenville Clark. It was renewed (by one vote) in summer 1941. It involved questions as who should control the draft, the size of the army, and the need for deferments. The system worked through local draft boards comprising community leaders who were given quotas and then decided how to fill them. There was very little draft resistance.<ref>Flynn, ''The Draft, 1940-1973'' (1993) </ref>

In 1940 Congress passed the first draft legislation, which was led by Grenville Clark. It was renewed (by one vote) in summer 1941. It involved questions as who should control the draft, the size of the army, and the need for deferments. The system worked through local draft boards comprising community leaders who were given quotas and then decided how to fill them. There was very little draft resistance.<ref>Flynn, ''The Draft, 1940-1973'' (1993)</ref>

The nation went from a surplus manpower pool with high unemployment and relief in 1940 to a severe manpower shortage by 1943. Industry realized that the army urgently desired production of essential war materials and foodstuffs more than soldiers. (Large numbers of soldiers were not used until the invasion of Europe in summer 1944.) In 1940-43 the Army often transferred soldiers to civilian status in the Enlisted Reserve Corps in order to increase production. Those transferred would return to work in essential industry, although they could be called back to active duty if the army needed them. Others were discharged completely if their civilian work was deemed absolutely essential. There were instances of mass releases of men to increase production in various industries---copper, for example.

The nation went from a surplus manpower pool with high unemployment and relief in 1940 to a severe manpower shortage by 1943. Industry realized that the army urgently desired production of essential war materials and foodstuffs more than soldiers. (Large numbers of soldiers were not used until the invasion of Europe in summer 1944.) In 1940-43 the Army often transferred soldiers to civilian status in the Enlisted Reserve Corps in order to increase production. Those transferred would return to work in essential industry, although they could be called back to active duty if the army needed them. Others were discharged completely if their civilian work was deemed absolutely essential. There were instances of mass releases of men to increase production in various industries---copper, for example.

Burning issues included the drafting of fathers, which was avoided as much as possible. The drafting of 18-year olds was desired by the military but vetoed by public opinion. Blacks and Asians were drafted at the same rate as whites. The experience of World War I regarding men needed by industry was particularly unsatisfactory--too many skilled mechanics and engineers became privates.  Farmers demanded and were generally given occupational deferments (many volunteered anyway--but those who stayed at home lost postwar veterans benefits.)

Burning issues included the drafting of fathers, which was avoided as much as possible. The drafting of 18-year olds was desired by the military but vetoed by public opinion. Blacks and Asians were drafted at the same rate as whites. The experience of World War I regarding men needed by industry was particularly unsatisfactory—too many skilled mechanics and engineers became privates.  Farmers demanded and were generally given occupational deferments (many volunteered anyway—but those who stayed at home lost postwar veterans benefits.)

==Population movements==

==Population movements==

First, women took on many paid jobs in temporary new munitions factories, and in old factories that had been converted from civilian products like automobiles. This was the "Rosie the Riveter" phenomenon.

First, women took on many paid jobs in temporary new munitions factories, and in old factories that had been converted from civilian products like automobiles. This was the "Rosie the Riveter" phenomenon.

Second, they filled many traditionally female jobs that were created by the war boom--as waitresses, for example. Third they broke into jobs that had almost always been held by men--such as bank teller or shoe salesperson.  In general when they replaced men they came with fewer skills. Industry retooled its machine jobs so that unskilled workers (women and men too) could handle them. (This opened many jobs for men who had been unemployed in the 1930s). Some unions tried to maintain the same pay scale as men had because they expected men to resume their jobs after the war.

Second, they filled many traditionally female jobs that were created by the war boom—as waitresses, for example. Third they broke into jobs that had almost always been held by men—such as bank teller or shoe salesperson.  In general when they replaced men they came with fewer skills. Industry retooled its machine jobs so that unskilled workers (women and men too) could handle them. (This opened many jobs for men who had been unemployed in the 1930s). Some unions tried to maintain the same pay scale as men had because they expected men to resume their jobs after the war.

Married women continued their usual household duties of cleaning, cooking, purchasing and nursing the sick, and added the new role of full-time paid worker. After 1945 they gave up their jobs and became housewives again.  Historians also debate how much of that was voluntary and how much was involuntary.

Married women continued their usual household duties of cleaning, cooking, purchasing and nursing the sick, and added the new role of full-time paid worker. After 1945 they gave up their jobs and became housewives again.  Historians also debate how much of that was voluntary and how much was involuntary.

==Role of minorities==

==Role of minorities==

===FEPC===

===FEPC===

The '''[[FEPC]]''' was created by a 1941 executive order #8802 by President Roosevelt requiring companies with government contracts not to discriminate on the basis of race or religion.  It assisted African Americans in obtaining jobs in industry.  It said "there shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origin." In 1943 Roosevelt greatly strengthened FEPC with a new executive order, #9346. It required that all government contracts have a non-discrimination clause. FEPC was the most significant breakthrough ever for Blacks and women on the job front. During the war the federal government operated airfield, shipyards, supply centers, ammunition plants and other facilities that employed millions.  FEPC rules applied and guaranteed equality of employment rights. Of course, these facilities shut down when the war ended. In the private sector the FEPC was generally successful in enforcing non-discrimination in the North, it did not attempt to challenge segregation in the South, and in the border region its intervention led to hate strikes by angry white workers.<ref>Garfinkel. ''When Negroes March'' (1959). </ref>

The '''[[FEPC]]''' was created by a 1941 executive order #8802 by President Roosevelt requiring companies with government contracts not to discriminate on the basis of race or religion.  It assisted African Americans in obtaining jobs in industry.  It said "there shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origin." In 1943 Roosevelt greatly strengthened FEPC with a new executive order, #9346. It required that all government contracts have a non-discrimination clause. FEPC was the most significant breakthrough ever for Blacks and women on the job front. During the war the federal government operated airfield, shipyards, supply centers, ammunition plants and other facilities that employed millions.  FEPC rules applied and guaranteed equality of employment rights. Of course, these facilities shut down when the war ended. In the private sector the FEPC was generally successful in enforcing non-discrimination in the North, it did not attempt to challenge segregation in the South, and in the border region its intervention led to hate strikes by angry white workers.<ref>Garfinkel. ''When Negroes March'' (1959).</ref>

===African American: Double V campaign===

===African American: Double V campaign===

The African American community in the United States resolved on a "Double V" campaign: Victory over Fascism abroad, and victory over discrimination at home. Large numbers migrated from poor Southern farms to munitions centers. Racial tensions were high in overcrowded cities like Chicago; Detroit and Harlem experienced race riots in 1943.<ref>Wynn. ''The Afro-American and the Second World War'' (1977) </ref>

The African American community in the United States resolved on a "Double V" campaign: Victory over Fascism abroad, and victory over discrimination at home. Large numbers migrated from poor Southern farms to munitions centers. Racial tensions were high in overcrowded cities like Chicago; Detroit and Harlem experienced race riots in 1943.<ref>Wynn. ''The Afro-American and the Second World War'' (1977)</ref>

===Internment of Japanese Americans===

===Internment of Japanese Americans===

In 1942 the War Department demanded that all enemy nationals be removed from war zones on the West Coast.  The question became how to evacuate the estimated 120,000 people of Japanese citizenship living in California. Roosevelt looked at the secret evidence available to him:<ref>Keith Robar, ''Intelligence, Internment & Relocation: Roosevelt's Executive Order 9066: How Top Secret "MAGIC" Intelligence Led to Evacuation'' (2000) </ref> the Japanese in the Philippines had collaborated with the Japanese invasion troops; most of the adult Japanese in California had been strong supporters of Japan in the war against China. There was evidence of espionage compiled by code-breakers that decrypted messages to Japan from agents in North America and Hawaii before and after [[Pearl Harbor]].  On February 19, 1942 Roosevelt issued Executive Order #9066 which set up designated military areas "from which any or all persons may be excluded."  The most controversial part of the order included American born children and youth who had dual U.S, and Japanese citizenship. In February 1943, when activating the 442nd Regimental Combat Team --a unit composed of U.S.-born American citizens of Japanese descent living in Hawaii, Roosevelt said, "No loyal citizen of the United States should be denied the democratic right to exercise the responsibilities of his citizenship, regardless of his ancestry. The principle on which this country was founded and by which it has always been governed is that Americanism is a matter of the mind and heart; Americanism is not, and never was, a matter of race or ancestry."  In 1944, the Supreme Court upheld the legality of the executive order in the ''Korematsu v. United States'' case. The executive order remained in force until December when Roosevelt released the Japanese internees, except for those who announced their intention to return to Japan.

In 1942 the War Department demanded that all enemy nationals be removed from war zones on the West Coast.  The question became how to evacuate the estimated 120,000 people of Japanese citizenship living in California. Roosevelt looked at the secret evidence available to him:<ref>Keith Robar, ''Intelligence, Internment & Relocation: Roosevelt's Executive Order 9066: How Top Secret "MAGIC" Intelligence Led to Evacuation'' (2000)</ref> the Japanese in the Philippines had collaborated with the Japanese invasion troops; most of the adult Japanese in California had been strong supporters of Japan in the war against China. There was evidence of espionage compiled by code-breakers that decrypted messages to Japan from agents in North America and Hawaii before and after [[Pearl Harbor]].  On February 19, 1942 Roosevelt issued Executive Order #9066 which set up designated military areas "from which any or all persons may be excluded."  The most controversial part of the order included American born children and youth who had dual U.S, and Japanese citizenship. In February 1943, when activating the 442nd Regimental Combat Team—a unit composed of U.S.-born American citizens of Japanese descent living in Hawaii, Roosevelt said, "No loyal citizen of the United States should be denied the democratic right to exercise the responsibilities of his citizenship, regardless of his ancestry. The principle on which this country was founded and by which it has always been governed is that Americanism is a matter of the mind and heart; Americanism is not, and never was, a matter of race or ancestry."  In 1944, the Supreme Court upheld the legality of the executive order in the ''Korematsu v. United States'' case. The executive order remained in force until December when Roosevelt released the Japanese internees, except for those who announced their intention to return to Japan.

Italy was now an official enemy and citizens of Italy were also forced away from "strategic" coastal areas in California. All together 58,000 Italian citizens were forced to relocate. They relocated on their own and were not put in camps. Known spokesmen for Mussolini were arrested and held in prison. The restrictions were dropped in October 1942, and Italy switched sides in 1943 and became an American ally.

Italy was now an official enemy and citizens of Italy were also forced away from "strategic" coastal areas in California. All together 58,000 Italian citizens were forced to relocate. They relocated on their own and were not put in camps. Known spokesmen for Mussolini were arrested and held in prison. The restrictions were dropped in October 1942, and Italy switched sides in 1943 and became an American ally.

==Propaganda and culture==

==Propaganda and culture==

The media cooperated with the federal government in presenting the official view of the war. All movie scripts had to be pre-approved, but there was no direct censorship of radio, newspapers or magazines.<ref> Fox, ''Madison Avenue Goes to War'' (1975) </ref>  World War II posters helped to mobilize a nation. Inexpensive, accessible, and ever-present, the poster was an ideal agent for making war aims the personal mission of every citizen. Government agencies, businesses, and private organizations issued an array of poster images linking the military front with the home front--calling upon every American to boost production at work and at home. Deriving their appearance from the fine and commercial arts, posters conveyed more than simple slogans. Posters expressed the needs and goals of the people who created them. By definition, wartime posters are naturally propagandistic, but most WW II posters were merely patriotically so.  Some, however, resorted to gross racial and ethnic caricitures of the enemy, sometimes as hopelessly bumbling cartoon characters, sometimes as evil, half-human creatures.   

The media cooperated with the federal government in presenting the official view of the war. All movie scripts had to be pre-approved, but there was no direct censorship of radio, newspapers or magazines.<ref>Fox, ''Madison Avenue Goes to War'' (1975)</ref>  World War II posters helped to mobilize a nation. Inexpensive, accessible, and ever-present, the poster was an ideal agent for making war aims the personal mission of every citizen. Government agencies, businesses, and private organizations issued an array of poster images linking the military front with the home front—calling upon every American to boost production at work and at home. Deriving their appearance from the fine and commercial arts, posters conveyed more than simple slogans. Posters expressed the needs and goals of the people who created them. By definition, wartime posters are naturally propagandistic, but most WW II posters were merely patriotically so.  Some, however, resorted to gross racial and ethnic caricitures of the enemy, sometimes as hopelessly bumbling cartoon characters, sometimes as evil, half-human creatures.   

One of the most noteworthy areas of civilian involvement during the war was in the area of recycling.  Many everyday commodities were vital to the war effort, and drives were organized to recycle such things as rubber, tin, waste kitchen fats (the predominant raw material of explosives and many pharmaceuticals) paper, lumber, steel and many others.  A popular phrase promoted by the government at the time was "Get some cash for your trash" (a nominal sum was paid to the donor for many kinds of scrap items) and "Fats" Waller recorded a song by the same title. Such commodities as rubber and tin remained highly important as recycled materials until the end of the war, while others, such as steel, were critically needed at first, but in lesser quantities as damaged war materials were returned from overseas for scrapping, lessening the need for civilian scrap metal drives.  Once again, war propaganda played a prominent role in many of these drives.

One of the most noteworthy areas of civilian involvement during the war was in the area of recycling.  Many everyday commodities were vital to the war effort, and drives were organized to recycle such things as rubber, tin, waste kitchen fats (the predominant raw material of explosives and many pharmaceuticals) paper, lumber, steel and many others.  A popular phrase promoted by the government at the time was "Get some cash for your trash" (a nominal sum was paid to the donor for many kinds of scrap items) and "Fats" Waller recorded a song by the same title. Such commodities as rubber and tin remained highly important as recycled materials until the end of the war, while others, such as steel, were critically needed at first, but in lesser quantities as damaged war materials were returned from overseas for scrapping, lessening the need for civilian scrap metal drives.  Once again, war propaganda played a prominent role in many of these drives.

* Evans Paul. "The Effects of General Price Controls in the United States during World War II." ''Journal of Political Economy'' 90 (1983): 944-66. statistical in JSTOR

* Evans Paul. "The Effects of General Price Controls in the United States during World War II." ''Journal of Political Economy'' 90 (1983): 944-66. statistical in JSTOR

*Faue, Elizabeth. ''Community of Suffering & Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945'' (1991), social history [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=33744325 online edition]

*Faue, Elizabeth. ''Community of Suffering & Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945'' (1991), social history [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=33744325 online edition]

* Feagin, Joe R., and Kelly Riddell. "The State, Capitalism and World War II: The U.S. Case." ''Armed Forces and Society'' 17 (fall 1990): 53-79. [[http://afs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/17/1/53 abstract online]

* Feagin, Joe R., and Kelly Riddell. "The State, Capitalism and World War II: The U.S. Case." ''Armed Forces and Society'' 17 (fall 1990): 53-79. [http://afs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/17/1/53 abstract online]

* Ferguson, Robert G. "One Thousand Planes a Day: Ford, Grumman, General Motors and the Arsenal of Democracy." ''History and Technology'' 2005 21(2): 149-175. ISSN 0734-1512 Fulltext in Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco

* Ferguson, Robert G. "One Thousand Planes a Day: Ford, Grumman, General Motors and the Arsenal of Democracy." ''History and Technology'' 2005 21(2): 149-175. ISSN 0734-1512 Fulltext in Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco

* George Q. Flynn; ''The Mess in Washington: Manpower Mobilization in World War II'' Greenwood Press. 1979. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=15339454 online edition]*Fraser, Steve. ''Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor'' (1993). leader of CIO

* George Q. Flynn; ''The Mess in Washington: Manpower Mobilization in World War II'' Greenwood Press. 1979. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=15339454 online edition]*Fraser, Steve. ''Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor'' (1993). leader of CIO

* Dalfiume, Richard M. "The 'Forgotten Years'" of the Negro Revolution," ''Journal of American History,'' 55#1 (June 1968), 90-106. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/1894253 in JSTOR]

* Dalfiume, Richard M. "The 'Forgotten Years'" of the Negro Revolution," ''Journal of American History,'' 55#1 (June 1968), 90-106. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/1894253 in JSTOR]

* Daniel, Clete. ''Chicano Workers and the Politics of Fairness: The FEPC in the Southwest, 1941-1945'' University of Texas Press, 1991

* Daniel, Clete. ''Chicano Workers and the Politics of Fairness: The FEPC in the Southwest, 1941-1945'' University of Texas Press, 1991

* Collins, William J. "Race, Roosevelt, and Wartime Production: Fair Employment in World War II Labor Markets," ''American Economic Review'' 91:1 (March 2001), pp. 272-286. in JSTOR

* Collins, William J. "Race, Roosevelt, and Wartime Production: Fair Employment in World War II Labor Markets," ''American Economic Review'' 91:1 (March 2001), pp.&nbsp;272–286. in JSTOR

* Costello, John. ''Virtue Under Fire: How World War II Changed Our Social and Sexual Attitudes'' (1986), US and Britain

* Costello, John. ''Virtue Under Fire: How World War II Changed Our Social and Sexual Attitudes'' (1986), US and Britain

* Dower, John W. et al. eds. ''Wearing Propaganda: Textiles on the Home Front in Japan, Britain, and the United States, 1931–1945.'' (2006) 376 pp.; 400 color illustrations

* Dower, John W. et al. eds. ''Wearing Propaganda: Textiles on the Home Front in Japan, Britain, and the United States, 1931–1945.'' (2006) 376 pp.; 400 color illustrations

==References==

==References==

<references/>

<references/>

[[category:World War II]]

[[Category:World War II]]

[[category:New Deal]]

[[Category:New Deal]]