Changes

</ref> Blaine focused on relations with Latin-American and Britain. He pushed for an canal across Panama, built, operated, and controlled by the United States; he secured Congressional legislation resulting in the Pan-American Conference which met in Washington in October, 1889. Blaine's set up the Bureau of American Republics in Washington.<ref>Healy (2001)</ref> As an early environmentalist he used diplomacy to protect the seal herds in the Pribilof Islands of Alaska.<ref>Charles S. Campbell, Jr., "The Anglo-American Crisis in the Bering Sea, 1890-1891." ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' 1961 48(3): 393-414. Issn: 0161-391x Fulltext: in Jstor</ref> He tried to annex Hawaii (which almost succeeded in early 1893, but was postponed to 1898). Indeed, the permanent influence of Blaine on American life was through his foreign policy. Although Blaine concluded tariff reciprocity agreements with eight Latin American nations, reciprocity negotiations with Canada stalled in 1891-92. Harrison and Blaine feared a political backlash from American farmers and lumbermen if concessions were made to Canada. Blaine's Anglophobia also influenced the outcome of the negotiations, and Canada's negotiators to the end resisted the inclusion of reciprocity on manufactured articles in any treaty.<ref>Allan B. Spetter, "Harrison and Blaine: No Reciprocity for Canada." ''Canadian Review of American Studies'' 1981 12(2): 143-156. Issn: 0007-7720</ref> The two most important reciprocity agreements were signed with Brazil and with Spain for Cuba and Puerto Rico.

</ref> Blaine focused on relations with Latin-American and Britain. He pushed for an canal across Panama, built, operated, and controlled by the United States; he secured Congressional legislation resulting in the Pan-American Conference which met in Washington in October, 1889. Blaine's set up the Bureau of American Republics in Washington.<ref>Healy (2001)</ref> As an early environmentalist he used diplomacy to protect the seal herds in the Pribilof Islands of Alaska.<ref>Charles S. Campbell, Jr., "The Anglo-American Crisis in the Bering Sea, 1890-1891." ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' 1961 48(3): 393-414. Issn: 0161-391x Fulltext: in Jstor</ref> He tried to annex Hawaii (which almost succeeded in early 1893, but was postponed to 1898). Indeed, the permanent influence of Blaine on American life was through his foreign policy. Although Blaine concluded tariff reciprocity agreements with eight Latin American nations, reciprocity negotiations with Canada stalled in 1891-92. Harrison and Blaine feared a political backlash from American farmers and lumbermen if concessions were made to Canada. Blaine's Anglophobia also influenced the outcome of the negotiations, and Canada's negotiators to the end resisted the inclusion of reciprocity on manufactured articles in any treaty.<ref>Allan B. Spetter, "Harrison and Blaine: No Reciprocity for Canada." ''Canadian Review of American Studies'' 1981 12(2): 143-156. Issn: 0007-7720</ref> The two most important reciprocity agreements were signed with Brazil and with Spain for Cuba and Puerto Rico.

In foreign policy Blaine was a transitional figure, marking the end of one era in foreign policy and foreshadowing the next. Blaine brought energy, imagination and verve to the office in sharp contrast with his somnolent rivals, inspiring his activist twentieth-century successors. He was a pioneer in arbitration treaties, tariff reciprocity, and American administration of Latin American customs houses. to avert civil wars over the revenue stream.  Blaine wanted the the U.S. to be the protector and leader of the Western Hemisphere, even if the Latin America countries disagreed. He insisted on keeping the Americas away from European control while favoring peaceful arbitration and negotiations rather than war. Blaine forcefully argued for the national interests of his country. He kept the big picture firmly in mind, seeking long-term programs and not simply short-term fixes for the matter at hand.

In foreign policy Blaine was a transitional figure, marking the end of one era in foreign policy and foreshadowing the next. Blaine brought energy, imagination and verve to the office in sharp contrast with his somnolent rivals, inspiring his activist twentieth-century successors. He was a pioneer in arbitration treaties, tariff reciprocity, and American administration of Latin American customs houses. to avert civil wars over the revenue stream.  Blaine wanted the U.S. to be the protector and leader of the Western Hemisphere, even if the Latin America countries disagreed. He insisted on keeping the Americas away from European control while favoring peaceful arbitration and negotiations rather than war. Blaine forcefully argued for the national interests of his country. He kept the big picture firmly in mind, seeking long-term programs and not simply short-term fixes for the matter at hand.

==1898-1945==

==1898-1945==

Wilson, aided by his top advisor [[Colonel House]], played a dominant role in ending the war with his [[Fourteen Points]] and played the central role at the 1919 [[Paris Peace Conference]] that set the peace terms. Wilson failed to obtain Senate approval for the [[Treaty of Versailles]] because it required American entry into the [[League of Nations]], and Republicans led by Senator [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] demanded amendments (called "reservations") to protect American sovereignty, which Wilson rejected. The League went into operation but was ineffective; the U.S. never joined it.  

Wilson, aided by his top advisor [[Colonel House]], played a dominant role in ending the war with his [[Fourteen Points]] and played the central role at the 1919 [[Paris Peace Conference]] that set the peace terms. Wilson failed to obtain Senate approval for the [[Treaty of Versailles]] because it required American entry into the [[League of Nations]], and Republicans led by Senator [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] demanded amendments (called "reservations") to protect American sovereignty, which Wilson rejected. The League went into operation but was ineffective; the U.S. never joined it.  

Wilson's idealistic foreign policy, called "Wilsonianism" sought to end militarism as a force in world affairs, vigorously promote national self determination, create international bodies to head off serious disputes, and use American resources to promote democracy. Wilsonianism (and "idealism" generally) is opposed to "realism" in foreign policy, which stresses a concern for American self-interest, especially in economic and military terms.  Wilsonianism has been a major feature of the foreign policy of [[George W. Bush]] (2001-2009).

Wilson's idealistic foreign policy, called "Wilsonianism" sought to end militarism as a force in world affairs, vigorously promote national self-determination, create international bodies to head off serious disputes, and use American resources to promote democracy. Wilsonianism (and "idealism" generally) is opposed to "realism" in foreign policy, which stresses a concern for American self-interest, especially in economic and military terms.  Wilsonianism has been a major feature of the foreign policy of [[George W. Bush]] (2001-2009).

* [[Open Door Policy]], opens China  

* [[Open Door Policy]], opens China  

Starting in 1933 with the [[World Economic Conference]], American public opinion and national policy policy was to minimize the risk of entering another war by isolationist laws, such as the Neutrality Laws.  President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], started in late 1937 to reverse the isolationist policies.  When [[World War I]] began in late 1939, the U.S. was officially neutral but gave significant military aid to Britain, France and China. It was only after the bombing of [[Pearl Harbor]] in December 1941 that the United States abandoned its isolationism and entered the war. See [[America First Committee]] for the 1940-41 debate on avoiding American entry into [[World War II]] in Europe.

Starting in 1933 with the [[World Economic Conference]], American public opinion and national policy policy was to minimize the risk of entering another war by isolationist laws, such as the Neutrality Laws.  President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], started in late 1937 to reverse the isolationist policies.  When [[World War I]] began in late 1939, the U.S. was officially neutral but gave significant military aid to Britain, France and China. It was only after the bombing of [[Pearl Harbor]] in December 1941 that the United States abandoned its isolationism and entered the war. See [[America First Committee]] for the 1940-41 debate on avoiding American entry into [[World War II]] in Europe.

In October 1937, Roosevelt gave the "Quarantine Speech" aiming to contain aggressor nations, that is, Japan, Germany and Italy. He proposed that warmongering states be treated as a public health menace and be "quarantined." See [http://www.vlib.us/amdocs/texts/fdrquarn.html for text] Meanwhile he secretly stepped up a program to build long range submarines that could blockade Japan. In the summer of 1938, sensing war would come, Roosevelt began preparations for hemispheric defense and arms production; he asked for far more airplanes than the Air Corps had envisioned.  

In October 1937, Roosevelt gave the "Quarantine Speech" aiming to contain aggressor nations, that is, Japan, Germany and Italy. He proposed that warmongering states be treated as a public health menace and be "quarantined." See [http://www.vlib.us/amdocs/texts/fdrquarn.html for text] Meanwhile, he secretly stepped up a program to build long range submarines that could blockade Japan. In the summer of 1938, sensing war would come, Roosevelt began preparations for hemispheric defense and arms production; he asked for far more airplanes than the Air Corps had envisioned.  

When [[World War II]] broke out in Europe in September, 1939, Roosevelt rejected the Wilsonian neutrality stance (of being neutral in thought and deed), and made it clear that America detested Nazi aggression. Isolationist sentiment remained strong, however, forcing FDR to find new ways to assist Britain and France militarily. The great majority of Americans opposed Japan and agreed with FDR's efforts to provide military aid to China. Roosevelt turned to [[Harry Hopkins]] for foreign policy advice; Hopkins became his chief wartime adviser. Bypassing the State Department, FDR and Hopkins sought innovative ways to help Britain, whose financial resources were exhausted by the end of 1940. Congress, where isolationist sentiment was in retreat, passed the [[Lend-Lease Act]] in March 1941, allowing the U.S. to "lend" huge amounts of military equipment in return for "leases" on British naval bases in the Western Hemisphere. In sharp contrast to the loans of World War I, there would be no repayment after the war. Roosevelt was a lifelong free trader and anti-imperialist, and ending European colonialism was one of his objectives. Roosevelt forged a close personal relationship with [[Winston Churchill]], who became Prime Minister of Britain in May 1940. In May 1940, a stunning German blitzkrieg overran Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and finally France, leaving Britain vulnerable to invasion. Roosevelt, who was determined to defend Britain, took advantage of the rapid shifts of public opinion. A consensus was clear that military spending had to be dramatically expanded. There was no consensus on how much the U.S. should risk war in helping Britain. FDR replaced his cautious war and navy secretaries with pro-war interventionist Republican leaders, [[Henry L. Stimson]] and [[Frank Knox]], as Secretaries of War and the Navy respectively. The fall of Paris shocked American opinion, and isolationist sentiment declined. Both parties gave support to his plans to rapidly build up the American military, but the isolationists warned that Roosevelt would get the nation into an unnecessary war with Germany.  

When [[World War II]] broke out in Europe in September, 1939, Roosevelt rejected the Wilsonian neutrality stance (of being neutral in thought and deed), and made it clear that America detested Nazi aggression. Isolationist sentiment remained strong, however, forcing FDR to find new ways to assist Britain and France militarily. The great majority of Americans opposed Japan and agreed with FDR's efforts to provide military aid to China. Roosevelt turned to [[Harry Hopkins]] for foreign policy advice; Hopkins became his chief wartime adviser. Bypassing the State Department, FDR and Hopkins sought innovative ways to help Britain, whose financial resources were exhausted by the end of 1940. Congress, where isolationist sentiment was in retreat, passed the [[Lend-Lease Act]] in March 1941, allowing the U.S. to "lend" huge amounts of military equipment in return for "leases" on British naval bases in the Western Hemisphere. In sharp contrast to the loans of World War I, there would be no repayment after the war. Roosevelt was a lifelong free trader and anti-imperialist, and ending European colonialism was one of his objectives. Roosevelt forged a close personal relationship with [[Winston Churchill]], who became Prime Minister of Britain in May 1940. In May 1940, a stunning German blitzkrieg overran Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and finally France, leaving Britain vulnerable to invasion. Roosevelt, who was determined to defend Britain, took advantage of the rapid shifts of public opinion. A consensus was clear that military spending had to be dramatically expanded. There was no consensus on how much the U.S. should risk war in helping Britain. FDR replaced his cautious war and navy secretaries with pro-war interventionist Republican leaders, [[Henry L. Stimson]] and [[Frank Knox]], as Secretaries of War and the Navy respectively. The fall of Paris shocked American opinion, and isolationist sentiment declined. Both parties gave support to his plans to rapidly build up the American military, but the isolationists warned that Roosevelt would get the nation into an unnecessary war with Germany.  

The Republican party had an isolationist wing led by Senator [[Robert A. Taft]]. During World War II, the internationalist wing of the GOP gained strength, as former isolationist Arthur Vandenberg switched sides. The leaders of the anti-isolationist or "internationalist" wing were [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] (president 1952-60), and [[Richard Nixon]] (president 1968-74).  Conservative leader [[Barry Goldwater]] in 1964 rejected isolationism and called for an aggressive [[Rollback]] strategy to defeat Communism, a policy followed by [[Ronald Reagan]] (president 1980-88).   

The Republican party had an isolationist wing led by Senator [[Robert A. Taft]]. During World War II, the internationalist wing of the GOP gained strength, as former isolationist Arthur Vandenberg switched sides. The leaders of the anti-isolationist or "internationalist" wing were [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] (president 1952-60), and [[Richard Nixon]] (president 1968-74).  Conservative leader [[Barry Goldwater]] in 1964 rejected isolationism and called for an aggressive [[Rollback]] strategy to defeat Communism, a policy followed by [[Ronald Reagan]] (president 1980-88).   

Meanwhile isolationist sentiment grew in the Democratic party, largely in reaction to the failure of the [[Vietnam War]]. the chief spokesman was Senator [[George McGovern]], whose 1972 presidential campaign had the isolationist slogan, "Come Home America".

Meanwhile, isolationist sentiment grew in the Democratic party, largely in reaction to the failure of the [[Vietnam War]]. the chief spokesman was Senator [[George McGovern]], whose 1972 presidential campaign had the isolationist slogan, "Come Home America".

===Truman: 1945-53===

===Truman: 1945-53===

* [[George H.W. Bush]]  

* [[George H.W. Bush]]  

Reagan defeated Carter in 1980 by stressing the failures of both foreign and domestic policy, warning America had become weak at home and abroad. Rejecting detente he called for rollback of the decrepit Soviet Empire, whose only strength was in missile power but which was falling apart in terms of economics, politics and society.  

Reagan defeated Carter in 1980 by stressing the failures of both foreign and domestic policy, warning America had become weak at home and abroad. Rejecting détente he called for rollback of the decrepit Soviet Empire, whose only strength was in missile power but which was falling apart in terms of economics, politics and society.  

Reagan restructured American politics in a manner reminiscent of Franklin Roosevelt' [[New Deal Coalition]]. Reagan built entirely new electoral coalitions using fresh issues, such as opposition to taxes, opposition to economic regulation, and support for moral issues (like right-to-life) promoted by Catholics and especially evangelical Protestants.  In foreign policy the Cold War resumed with renewed intensity.  The defeatism of the late 1970s sparked a new determination among the Reaganites.  In the 1970s the Soviets had rejected détente, expanded Cold War operations into Africa, Asia and Latin America, enlarged their long-range missile forces, and invaded neutral Afghanistan.  Washington had learned a lesson from Vietnam, and succeeded in turning Afghanistan into a quagmire for the Soviets.  Reagan’s tax cuts and a national commitment to computers and high tech reenergized the American economy (at the cost of long-term national debt). Although racial and gender inequality diminished, economic inequality grew.  The Soviet economy proved utterly incapable of handling the transition from the industrial age of mechanical devices to the new information age.  Reagan convinced the nation to fund a vast “Star Wars” missile defense system as part of a gigantic high-tech military buildup that stunned the Soviets. They did not have the money or technology to compete in the renewed Cold War, and they realized defeat was looming.  Moscow turned to Mikhail Gorbachev who made desperate attempts to salvage Communism.  Reagan cut a deal—give up the Cold War and Gorbachev could have arms deals that would allow him to cut military spending and save his economy.  Gorbachev went along, abandoning Afghanistan and other overseas adventures, and finally releasing control over the European satellites. The fall of the Berlin Wall in November, 1989, marked the end of the Cold War with a stunning American victory.  Gorbachev’s reforms, meanwhile, made the Soviet economy worse, and he and the entire Communist system was overthrown in late 1991, as Russia started on the difficult transition to democracy and a capitalist economy..  

Reagan restructured American politics in a manner reminiscent of Franklin Roosevelt' [[New Deal Coalition]]. Reagan built entirely new electoral coalitions using fresh issues, such as opposition to taxes, opposition to economic regulation, and support for moral issues (like right-to-life) promoted by Catholics and especially evangelical Protestants.  In foreign policy the Cold War resumed with renewed intensity.  The defeatism of the late 1970s sparked a new determination among the Reaganites.  In the 1970s the Soviets had rejected détente, expanded Cold War operations into Africa, Asia and Latin America, enlarged their long-range missile forces, and invaded neutral Afghanistan.  Washington had learned a lesson from Vietnam, and succeeded in turning Afghanistan into a quagmire for the Soviets.  Reagan’s tax cuts and a national commitment to computers and high tech reenergized the American economy (at the cost of long-term national debt). Although racial and gender inequality diminished, economic inequality grew.  The Soviet economy proved utterly incapable of handling the transition from the industrial age of mechanical devices to the new information age.  Reagan convinced the nation to fund a vast “Star Wars” missile defense system as part of a gigantic high-tech military buildup that stunned the Soviets. They did not have the money or technology to compete in the renewed Cold War, and they realized defeat was looming.  Moscow turned to Mikhail Gorbachev who made desperate attempts to salvage Communism.  Reagan cut a deal—give up the Cold War and Gorbachev could have arms deals that would allow him to cut military spending and save his economy.  Gorbachev went along, abandoning Afghanistan and other overseas adventures, and finally releasing control over the European satellites. The fall of the Berlin Wall in November, 1989, marked the end of the Cold War with a stunning American victory.  Gorbachev’s reforms, meanwhile, made the Soviet economy worse, and he and the entire Communist system was overthrown in late 1991, as Russia started on the difficult transition to democracy and a capitalist economy..  

What scholars label the "orthodox view" of the end of the Cold War is that "the Soviet Union's capitulation and the Cold War victory for the forces of freedom and democracy were ultimately due to the relentless application of the West's military superiority and the dynamism of its ideas and economic system. These factors revealed communism's moral illegitimacy and highlighted its economic stagnation." Salla and Summy, p 3 It is broadly endorsed by both Republicans (who emphasize Reagan's role), and by Democrats (who emphasize the containment policies of [[Harry S. Truman]], [[John F. Kennedy]], and [[Lyndon Johnson]]. European leaders of the 1980s give credit to Reagan for winning the Cold War. [[Lech Wałęsa]], leader of the [[Solidarity]] movement in Poland, said in 2004, "When talking about Ronald Reagan, I have to be personal. We in Poland took him so personally. Why? Because we owe him our liberty. This can't be said often enough by people who lived under oppression for half a century, until communism fell in 1989."<ref>[http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110005204 Quoted in]</ref> Helmut Kohl, chancellor of [[West Germany]], said, "He was a stroke of luck for the world. Two years after Reagan called on [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] to tear down the wall, he noted, it fell and 11 months later Germany was reunified. We Germans have much to thank Ronald Reagan for." Irish Prime Minister Bertie Ahern said, "President Reagan was a determined opponent of Communism and he played an important role in bringing an end to Communism and to the artificial division of Europe imposed after the Second World War." [[Václav Havel]], who became the Czech president in 1989, said, "He was a man of firm principles who was indisputably instrumental in the fall of Communism."<ref>[http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,1227784,00.html Quotes at]</ref>

What scholars label the "orthodox view" of the end of the Cold War is that "the Soviet Union's capitulation and the Cold War victory for the forces of freedom and democracy were ultimately due to the relentless application of the West's military superiority and the dynamism of its ideas and economic system. These factors revealed communism's moral illegitimacy and highlighted its economic stagnation." Salla and Summy, p 3 It is broadly endorsed by both Republicans (who emphasize Reagan's role), and by Democrats (who emphasize the containment policies of [[Harry S. Truman]], [[John F. Kennedy]], and [[Lyndon Johnson]]. European leaders of the 1980s give credit to Reagan for winning the Cold War. [[Lech Wałęsa]], leader of the [[Solidarity]] movement in Poland, said in 2004, "When talking about Ronald Reagan, I have to be personal. We in Poland took him so personally. Why? Because we owe him our liberty. This can't be said often enough by people who lived under oppression for half a century, until communism fell in 1989."<ref>[http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110005204 Quoted in]</ref> Helmut Kohl, chancellor of [[West Germany]], said, "He was a stroke of luck for the world. Two years after Reagan called on [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] to tear down the wall, he noted, it fell and 11 months later Germany was reunified. We Germans have much to thank Ronald Reagan for." Irish Prime Minister Bertie Ahern said, "President Reagan was a determined opponent of Communism and he played an important role in bringing an end to Communism and to the artificial division of Europe imposed after the Second World War." [[Václav Havel]], who became the Czech president in 1989, said, "He was a man of firm principles who was indisputably instrumental in the fall of Communism."<ref>[http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,1227784,00.html Quotes at]</ref>

Liberals were aghast at Reagan's foreign policy, because it pushed idealism and moralism in dangerous directions. Fearing that rollback would lead to war, one critic ridiculed it as "crackpot moralism." Liberals preferred a foreign policy that pursued the national interest—by pulling back from a preoccupation with the Soviet threat, reducing military expenditure, relying on increased cooperation with our allies, establishing more constructive links to the Third World, restricting the freedom of multinational capital, deemphasizing nuclear weapons, and deepening detente with the Soviet Union.<ref>Alan Wolfe, "Crackpot Moralism, Neo-Realism and U.S. Foreign Policy." ''World Policy Journal.'' 3#2 (1986) pp 252-75 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=95721797 online edition]</ref>

Liberals were aghast at Reagan's foreign policy, because it pushed idealism and moralism in dangerous directions. Fearing that rollback would lead to war, one critic ridiculed it as "crackpot moralism." Liberals preferred a foreign policy that pursued the national interest—by pulling back from a preoccupation with the Soviet threat, reducing military expenditure, relying on increased cooperation with our allies, establishing more constructive links to the Third World, restricting the freedom of multinational capital, deemphasizing nuclear weapons, and deepening détente with the Soviet Union.<ref>Alan Wolfe, "Crackpot Moralism, Neo-Realism and U.S. Foreign Policy." ''World Policy Journal.'' 3#2 (1986) pp 252-75 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=95721797 online edition]</ref>

====Relations with Britain====

====Relations with Britain====