Changes

Egypt’s climate varied over time and location, through during the Dynastic era was, as it is today, predominantly a [[desert climate]], with long, hot summers and short, relatively mild winters, with rainfall being insignificant, with a Mediterranean climate prevailing in the Delta and far north.   

Egypt’s climate varied over time and location, through during the Dynastic era was, as it is today, predominantly a [[desert climate]], with long, hot summers and short, relatively mild winters, with rainfall being insignificant, with a Mediterranean climate prevailing in the Delta and far north.   

The inundation defined the seasons. The [[Nile]], swollen by rains in [[Ethiopia]]<ref>[http://library.thinkquest.org/16645/the_land/nile_afn.shtml  ThinkQuestTeam: ''The Annual Flood of the Nile'']</ref>, never failed to rise each summer, though the level of rise varied greatly. As it rose, the water spread over the flood plain, depositing large amounts of mud, silt and organic matter, laying down a nutrient rich layer, replenishing the soil and soaking it. For three months the water remained before retreating, leaving enough moisture in the ground that no further irrigation would be necessary on the first harvest. It was this inundation that would be the foundation for Egypt’s great wealth, built not on gold, but on grain.

The inundation defined the seasons. The [[Nile]], swollen by rains in [[Ethiopia]],<ref>[http://library.thinkquest.org/16645/the_land/nile_afn.shtml  ThinkQuestTeam: ''The Annual Flood of the Nile'']</ref> never failed to rise each summer, though the level of rise varied greatly. As it rose, the water spread over the flood plain, depositing large amounts of mud, silt and organic matter, laying down a nutrient rich layer, replenishing the soil and soaking it. For three months the water remained before retreating, leaving enough moisture in the ground that no further irrigation would be necessary on the first harvest. It was this inundation that would be the foundation for Egypt’s great wealth, built not on gold, but on grain.

== Chronology ==

== Chronology ==

[[Egyptian chronology|Egyptian history]] is split up into distinct periods, with the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms separated from each other and the Late Period by so-called “Intermediate Periods”, times of disunity and apparent unrest, or of foreign occupation. All dates before the Late Period are circa, and when dealing with purely Egyptian issues, it is common to work only within a framework of reigns and dynasties, rather than absolute dates.  

[[Egyptian chronology|Egyptian history]] is split up into distinct periods, with the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms separated from each other and the Late Period by so-called “Intermediate Periods”, times of disunity and apparent unrest, or of foreign occupation. All dates before the Late Period are circa, and when dealing with purely Egyptian issues, it is common to work only within a framework of reigns and dynasties, rather than absolute dates.  

Young earth creationists point to an increasing body of evidence which suggests that the history of ancient Egypt is shorter, by several millennia, than most scholars have previously supposed.<ref> http://creation.com/egyptian-history-and-the-biblical-record-a-perfect-match </ref> <ref>http://www.creationwiki.org/Egyptian_chronology </ref> <ref>http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v26/i4/pyramids.asp </ref>

Young earth creationists point to an increasing body of evidence which suggests that the history of ancient Egypt is shorter, by several millennia, than most scholars have previously supposed.<ref>http://creation.com/egyptian-history-and-the-biblical-record-a-perfect-match</ref><ref>http://www.creationwiki.org/Egyptian_chronology</ref><ref>http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v26/i4/pyramids.asp</ref>

=== Old Kingdom ===

=== Old Kingdom ===

The [[Old Kingdom]] covers Dynasties 3 to 6 (circa 2800 – 2186 BC). Although it has been argued by some that it should include Dynasties 1 – 3, and by others that it should only cover Dynasties 4 – 6, though 3 to 6 is the most widely accepted, beginning as it does with the revolutionary architecture of [[Djoser]].  

The [[Old Kingdom]] covers Dynasties 3 to 6 (circa 2800 – 2186 BC). Although it has been argued by some that it should include Dynasties 1 – 3, and by others that it should only cover Dynasties 4 – 6, though 3 to 6 is the most widely accepted, beginning as it does with the revolutionary architecture of [[Djoser]].  

The Old Kingdom is in many ways the zenith of the [[Divine Kingship]], and sees Pharaonic culture at it’s most confident and powerful, expressed in this periods most famous monuments, the Giza [[Pyramids]].  

The Old Kingdom is in many ways the zenith of the [[Divine Kingship]], and sees Pharaonic culture at its most confident and powerful, expressed in this periods most famous monuments, the Giza [[Pyramids]].  

During this period the Egyptian state developed an all encompassing and highly organised bureaucracy, organised into a strictly hierarchical and highly centralised structure dominated by the [[Pharaoh]], who exercised an extremely high degree of control over resources.

During this period the Egyptian state developed an all encompassing and highly organised bureaucracy, organised into a strictly hierarchical and highly centralised structure dominated by the [[Pharaoh]], who exercised an extremely high degree of control over resources.

== Government ==

== Government ==

Throughout the Dynastic Period, Egypt was an [[absolute monarchy]], ruled by a monarch regarded as divine. Egypt was a centralized state, with the monarch having the positions of [[head of state]], [[head of government]], head of the judiciary, [[commander in chief]] of the armed forces, and high priest of every temple. The monarch had several titles, the most well known being from the Greek derived “[[Pharaoh]]” (Egyptian: pr-aA, reconstructed as Per-‘a), though the more common Egyptian title was nsw-bity (Nesu-Bity), possibly translated as “King of Upper and Lower Egypt"). Day to day administration was overseen by a [[vizier]] (Egyptian: TAty, reconstructed as Tjaty), and in some periods of Egyptian history two viziers were appointed, one for Upper and one for Lower Egypt, reflecting a duality present in much of the administration.

Throughout the Dynastic Period, Egypt was an [[absolute monarchy]], ruled by a monarch regarded as divine. Egypt was a centralized state, with the monarch having the positions of [[head of state]], [[head of government]], head of the judiciary, [[commander in chief]] of the armed forces, and high priest of every temple. The monarch had several titles, the most well known being from the Greek derived “[[Pharaoh]]” (Egyptian: pr-aA, reconstructed as Per-‘a), though the more common Egyptian title was nsw-bity (Nesu-Bity), possibly translated as “King of Upper and Lower Egypt"). Day-to-day administration was overseen by a [[vizier]] (Egyptian: TAty, reconstructed as Tjaty), and in some periods of Egyptian history two viziers were appointed, one for Upper and one for Lower Egypt, reflecting a duality present in much of the administration.

The treasury, likewise, reflected the natural separation of the country, though a single treasurer oversaw both “The Overseer of the Double Granaries” being a common title for this role.

The treasury, likewise, reflected the natural separation of the country, though a single treasurer oversaw both “The Overseer of the Double Granaries” being a common title for this role.

From at least the New Kingdom, Egypt maintained a full time professional military force consisting of an army and naval fleet, as well as a separate police and patrol force, the mDAw (reconstructed as ''Medjay'').

From at least the New Kingdom, Egypt maintained a full-time professional military force consisting of an army and naval fleet, as well as a separate police and patrol force, the mDAw (reconstructed as ''Medjay'').

Labour for large-scale state works was provided by the public under a corvee requirement. See: [[Labour in Ancient Egypt]].

Labour for large-scale state works was provided by the public under a corvee requirement. See: [[Labour in Ancient Egypt]].

=== Agriculture ===

=== Agriculture ===

The bedrock of the Egyptian economy, and source of its wealth, was irrigation-assisted agriculture. The Nile valley was an almost perfect environment for agriculture to thrive, with abundant water and fertile top soil. The Nile flooding, almost every year, would deposit extremely rich and continually refreshed soil, and the floods made Egypt one of the only places where soil salinisation did not occur. The principal crops were emmer wheat, barely and flax, backed up by market gardening (onions, garlic, lettuce, cabbages etc). However, a variety of luxury goods were also grown, and it is known the grapes for wine were cultivated, alongside orchards, almonds and olives, dates, and bee-keeping for honey. Animal rearing, particularly cattle ranching, was also important.

The bedrock of the Egyptian economy, and source of its wealth, was irrigation-assisted agriculture. The Nile valley was an almost perfect environment for agriculture to thrive, with abundant water and fertile top soil. The Nile flooding, almost every year, would deposit extremely rich and continually refreshed soil, and the floods made Egypt one of the only places where soil salinisation did not occur. The principal crops were emmer wheat, barely and flax, backed up by market gardening (onions, garlic, lettuce, cabbages etc.). However, a variety of luxury goods were also grown, and it is known the grapes for wine were cultivated, alongside orchards, almonds and olives, dates, and bee-keeping for honey. Animal rearing, particularly cattle ranching, was also important.

=== Mining ===

=== Mining ===

It is generally held that Pharaonic civilization left behind no direct cultural decedents. The [[Egyptian Language|Egyptian language]] survived into Coptic, and much Egyptian iconographic conventions were adopted into the Christian religion, particularly the Coptic church. Some Egyptian loan words survive today in Egyptian Arabic, which is distinctly different to other dialects, and, particularly in Upper Egypt, a few folk customs also survived at least until the early 20th century. Besides this however, there is little continuity in traditions.

It is generally held that Pharaonic civilization left behind no direct cultural decedents. The [[Egyptian Language|Egyptian language]] survived into Coptic, and much Egyptian iconographic conventions were adopted into the Christian religion, particularly the Coptic church. Some Egyptian loan words survive today in Egyptian Arabic, which is distinctly different to other dialects, and, particularly in Upper Egypt, a few folk customs also survived at least until the early 20th century. Besides this however, there is little continuity in traditions.

Indirectly, Pharaonic culture left huge contributions to the world. Egypt was the first true nation-state, laying the foundations upon which the modern world is built. The development of bureaucratic administration based on writing, education, merit based selection, are all found in Egyptian culture. Technologically, the use of finished stone for construction, the use of paper, the art of architectural design, site surveying etc are first noted in Egypt, and possibly the disposable drill bit marks the first use of multi part disposable tools.  

Indirectly, Pharaonic culture left huge contributions to the world. Egypt was the first true nation-state, laying the foundations upon which the modern world is built. The development of bureaucratic administration based on writing, education, merit based selection, are all found in Egyptian culture. Technologically, the use of finished stone for construction, the use of paper, the art of architectural design, site surveying etc. are first noted in Egypt, and possibly the disposable drill bit marks the first use of multi part disposable tools.  

Academically, the science of [[Medicine in ancient Egypt|medicine in Egypt]] was well understood, and the Greeks, often considered the fathers of western medicine, acknowledged the Egyptians as the finest physicians in the known world.

Academically, the science of [[Medicine in ancient Egypt|medicine in Egypt]] was well understood, and the Greeks, often considered the fathers of western medicine, acknowledged the Egyptians as the finest physicians in the known world.