Changes

   

   

==Texas==

==Texas==

Texans established trail driving as a regular occupation. Before they broke away from Mexico in 1836, they had a "Beef Trail" to New Orleans. In the 1840s they extended their markets northward into Missouri--Sedalia, Baxter Springs, Springfield, and Saint Louis becoming the principal markets. During the 1850s emigration and freighting from the Missouri River westward demanded great numbers of oxen, the firm of Russell, Majors and Waddell in 1858 utilizing 40,000 oxen. Texas longhorn steers by the thousands were broken for work oxen. Herds of longhorns were driven to Chicago, and one herd at least to New York.   

Texans established trail driving as a regular occupation. Before they broke away from Mexico in 1836, they had a "Beef Trail" to New Orleans. In the 1840s they extended their markets northward into Missouri—Sedalia, Baxter Springs, Springfield, and Saint Louis becoming the principal markets. During the 1850s emigration and freighting from the Missouri River westward demanded great numbers of oxen, the firm of Russell, Majors and Waddell in 1858 utilizing 40,000 oxen. Texas longhorn steers by the thousands were broken for work oxen. Herds of longhorns were driven to Chicago, and one herd at least to New York.   

[[Image:Tx-longhorn.jpg|thumb|275px|After 1865 cowboys drove herds of longhorn cattle over the Chisholm Trail to the railheads in Kansas; they were replaced with hybrid short-horned breeds after 1900.<ref> Donald E. Worcester, "Longhorn cattle," [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/LL/atl2.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)]</ref>]]

[[Image:Tx-longhorn.jpg|thumb|275px|After 1865 cowboys drove herds of longhorn cattle over the Chisholm Trail to the railheads in Kansas; they were replaced with hybrid short-horned breeds after 1900.<ref>Donald E. Worcester, "Longhorn cattle," [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/LL/atl2.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)]</ref>]]

At the close of the war Texas had probably 5 million cattle--and no market. Late in 1865 a few cowmen tried to find a market. In 1866 there were many drives northward without a definite destination and without much financial success; also to the old but limited New Orleans market, following mostly well-established trails to the wharves of Shreveport and Jefferson (Texas).  In 1868, David Morrill Poor, a former Confederate officer from San Antonio, Texas, drove 1,100 cattle from east of San Angelo into Mexico over the Chihuahua Trail. This event, the "Great Chihuahua Cattle Drive," was the largest cattle drive attempted over that trail up to that time, but the market was much better in Kansas than in Mexico, so most drives headed north.<ref> Douglas N. Travers, "The Great Chihuahua Cattle Drive of 1868." ''Journal of Big Bend Studies'' 2001 13: 85-105. Issn: 1058-4617</ref>

At the close of the war Texas had probably 5 million cattle—and no market. Late in 1865 a few cowmen tried to find a market. In 1866 there were many drives northward without a definite destination and without much financial success; also to the old but limited New Orleans market, following mostly well-established trails to the wharves of Shreveport and Jefferson (Texas).  In 1868, David Morrill Poor, a former Confederate officer from San Antonio, Texas, drove 1,100 cattle from east of San Angelo into Mexico over the Chihuahua Trail. This event, the "Great Chihuahua Cattle Drive," was the largest cattle drive attempted over that trail up to that time, but the market was much better in Kansas than in Mexico, so most drives headed north.<ref>Douglas N. Travers, "The Great Chihuahua Cattle Drive of 1868." ''Journal of Big Bend Studies'' 2001 13: 85-105. Issn: 1058-4617</ref>

In 1867 Joseph G. McCoy opened a regular market at Abilene, Kans. The great cattle trails, moving successively westward, were established and trail driving boomed. In 1867 the Goodnight-Loving Trail opened up New Mexico and Colorado to Texas cattle. By the tens of thousands they were soon driven into Arizona. In Texas itself cattle raising expanded rapidly as American tastes shifted from pork to beef. Caldwell, Dodge City, Ogallala, Cheyenne, and other towns became famous because of trail-driver patronage.   

In 1867 Joseph G. McCoy opened a regular market at Abilene, Kans. The great cattle trails, moving successively westward, were established and trail driving boomed. In 1867 the Goodnight-Loving Trail opened up New Mexico and Colorado to Texas cattle. By the tens of thousands they were soon driven into Arizona. In Texas itself cattle raising expanded rapidly as American tastes shifted from pork to beef. Caldwell, Dodge City, Ogallala, Cheyenne, and other towns became famous because of trail-driver patronage.   

==Cow towns==

==Cow towns==

The cow towns flourished 1866-1890. The first was Abilene, Kans. Other towns in Kansas--Wichita, Hays, Ellsworth, Newton, Caldwell, and Dodge City--succeeded Abilene or shared its patronage by riders fresh off the long trail. Hunnewell, Missouri; Ogallala, Nebraska; Cheyenne, Wyoming; Miles City, Montana; and Medora, North Dakota, served the trade as well. In the 1880s Dodge City boasted of being the "cowboy capital of the world." Abilene, Tascosa, Amarillo, Fort Worth, and Wichita Falls, all in Texas; and Prescott, Arizona; Greeley, Colorado; and Las Vegas, New Mexico were regionally important.  

The cow towns flourished 1866-1890. The first was Abilene, Kans. Other towns in Kansas—Wichita, Hays, Ellsworth, Newton, Caldwell, and Dodge City—succeeded Abilene or shared its patronage by riders fresh off the long trail. Hunnewell, Missouri; Ogallala, Nebraska; Cheyenne, Wyoming; Miles City, Montana; and Medora, North Dakota, served the trade as well. In the 1880s Dodge City boasted of being the "cowboy capital of the world." Abilene, Tascosa, Amarillo, Fort Worth, and Wichita Falls, all in Texas; and Prescott, Arizona; Greeley, Colorado; and Las Vegas, New Mexico were regionally important.  

The most famous cow towns like Abilene were railheads, where the herds were shipped to the Chicago stockyards.  Many smaller towns along the way supported range lands. Many of the cow towns were enlivened by buffalo hunters, railroad construction gangs, and freighting outfits during their heyday. Cattle owners made these towns headquarters for buying and selling.  

The most famous cow towns like Abilene were railheads, where the herds were shipped to the Chicago stockyards.  Many smaller towns along the way supported range lands. Many of the cow towns were enlivened by buffalo hunters, railroad construction gangs, and freighting outfits during their heyday. Cattle owners made these towns headquarters for buying and selling.  

[[Image:Cattle-Trails.jpg|thumb|420px|chuck wagon on the trail in Montana]]

[[Image:Cattle-Trails.jpg|thumb|420px|chuck wagon on the trail in Montana]]

Cowboys, after months of monotonous work, dull food, and abstinence of all kinds, were paid off and turned loose. They howled, got shaved and shorn, bought new clothes and gear. They drank "white mule" straight. Madames and gambling-hall operators flourished in towns that were wide open twenty-four hours a day. Violence and ebullient spirits called forth a kind of "peace officer" that cow towns made famous--the town marshal. Wild Bill Hickok and Wyatt Earp were perhaps the two best-known cow-town marshals. The number of killings was, however, small by the standards of eastern cities.<ref> Robert R. Dykstra, ''The Cattle Towns'' (1968)</ref>

Cowboys, after months of monotonous work, dull food, and abstinence of all kinds, were paid off and turned loose. They howled, got shaved and shorn, bought new clothes and gear. They drank "white mule" straight. Madames and gambling-hall operators flourished in towns that were wide open twenty-four hours a day. Violence and ebullient spirits called forth a kind of "peace officer" that cow towns made famous—the town marshal. Wild Bill Hickok and Wyatt Earp were perhaps the two best-known cow-town marshals. The number of killings was, however, small by the standards of eastern cities.<ref>Robert R. Dykstra, ''The Cattle Towns'' (1968)</ref>

==End of the line==

==End of the line==

===Australia===

===Australia===

Australia is noted for long drives.  Patsy Durack, for instance, left Queensland for the Kimberleys in Western Australia in 1885 with 8,000 cattle, arriving with only half that number some two years and two months later, completing a drive of some 3,000 miles.  Indeed, long cattle drives continued well into the latter half of the twentieth century.<ref> Jim Hoy, "The Americanisation of the Outback: Cowboys and Stockmen," ''Journal of Australian Studies.'' (2000) pp 205+ [http://www.questia.com/read/5001171889?title=The%20Americanisation%20of%20the%20Outback%3a%20Cowboys%20and%20Stockmen online edition]</ref>

Australia is noted for long drives.  Patsy Durack, for instance, left Queensland for the Kimberleys in Western Australia in 1885 with 8,000 cattle, arriving with only half that number some two years and two months later, completing a drive of some 3,000 miles.  Indeed, long cattle drives continued well into the latter half of the twentieth century.<ref>Jim Hoy, "The Americanisation of the Outback: Cowboys and Stockmen," ''Journal of Australian Studies.'' (2000) pp 205+ [http://www.questia.com/read/5001171889?title=The%20Americanisation%20of%20the%20Outback%3a%20Cowboys%20and%20Stockmen online edition]</ref>

==Image and memory==

==Image and memory==

During three swift decades it had moved over ten million cattle and one million range horses, stamped the entire West with its character, given economic and personality prestige to Texas, made the longhorn historic, glorified the cowboy over the globe, and endowed America with its most romantic tradition relating to any occupation.   

During three swift decades it had moved over ten million cattle and one million range horses, stamped the entire West with its character, given economic and personality prestige to Texas, made the longhorn historic, glorified the cowboy over the globe, and endowed America with its most romantic tradition relating to any occupation.   

The best known cowboy writers include [[Theodore Roosevelt]], who lost his inheritance ranching in the Dakotas in the 1880s,  [[Will Rogers]], the leading humorist of the 1920s, and Indiana-born Andy Adams (1859-1935), who spent the 1880s and 1890s in the cattle industry and mining in the Great Plains and Southwest. When an 1898 play's portrayal of Texans outraged Adams, he started writing plays, short stories, and novels drawn from his own experiences. His ''The Log of a Cowboy'' (1903) became a classic novel about the cattle business, especially the cattle drive.  It described a fictional drive of the Circle Dot herd from Texas to Montana in 1882, and became a leading  source on cowboy life; historians retraced his path in the 1960s, confirming his basic accuracy.  His writing is acclaimed and criticized for their fidelity to truth and their lack of literary qualities.<ref>See [http://books.google.com/books?id=1Ho4AAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Log+of+a+Cowboy&pg=PP1&ots=JNb77NHCKz&sig=HNrd_DpLlSKAdGWsCqwNum2Z0EQ&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result  ''The Log of a Cowboy'' (1903) full text] </ref>

The best known cowboy writers include [[Theodore Roosevelt]], who lost his inheritance ranching in the Dakotas in the 1880s,  [[Will Rogers]], the leading humorist of the 1920s, and Indiana-born Andy Adams (1859-1935), who spent the 1880s and 1890s in the cattle industry and mining in the Great Plains and Southwest. When an 1898 play's portrayal of Texans outraged Adams, he started writing plays, short stories, and novels drawn from his own experiences. His ''The Log of a Cowboy'' (1903) became a classic novel about the cattle business, especially the cattle drive.  It described a fictional drive of the Circle Dot herd from Texas to Montana in 1882, and became a leading  source on cowboy life; historians retraced his path in the 1960s, confirming his basic accuracy.  His writing is acclaimed and criticized for their fidelity to truth and their lack of literary qualities.<ref>See [http://books.google.com/books?id=1Ho4AAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Log+of+a+Cowboy&pg=PP1&ots=JNb77NHCKz&sig=HNrd_DpLlSKAdGWsCqwNum2Z0EQ&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result  ''The Log of a Cowboy'' (1903) full text]</ref>

===Cowboy culture===

===Cowboy culture===

The cowboy's distinctive working gear, most of it borrowed from the Mexican vaquero, captured the public imagination.  His high-crowned sombrero, high-heeled boots, leather chaps, six-shooter, lariat, and spurs were functional and necessary in the field, and fascinating on the movie screen.  Increasingly the public identified the cowboy with courage and devotion to duty, for he tended cattle wherever he had to go, whether in bogs of quicksand; swift, flooding rivers; or seemingly inaccessible brush. He rode with lightning and blizzard, ate hot summer sand, and was burned by the sun.  [[Theodore Roosevelt]] conceptualized the herder as a stage of civilization distinct from the sedentary farmer--a classic theme well expressed in the 1944 film "Oklahoma!"  Roosevelt argued that the manhood typified by the cowboy--and outdoor activity and sports generally--was essential if American men were to avoid the softness and rot produced by an easy life in the city.   

The cowboy's distinctive working gear, most of it borrowed from the Mexican vaquero, captured the public imagination.  His high-crowned sombrero, high-heeled boots, leather chaps, six-shooter, lariat, and spurs were functional and necessary in the field, and fascinating on the movie screen.  Increasingly the public identified the cowboy with courage and devotion to duty, for he tended cattle wherever he had to go, whether in bogs of quicksand; swift, flooding rivers; or seemingly inaccessible brush. He rode with lightning and blizzard, ate hot summer sand, and was burned by the sun.  [[Theodore Roosevelt]] conceptualized the herder as a stage of civilization distinct from the sedentary farmer—a classic theme well expressed in the 1944 film "Oklahoma!"  Roosevelt argued that the manhood typified by the cowboy—and outdoor activity and sports generally—was essential if American men were to avoid the softness and rot produced by an easy life in the city.   

The cow towns along the trail were notorious for providing liquor and female company to the cowboys; they usually were not allowed to drink on the trail itself. Historians have vigorously debated just how violent these towns were.<ref> Raymond B. Wrabley,  Jr., "Drunk Driving or Dry Run? Cowboys and Alcohol on the Cattle Trail." ''Kansas History'' 2007 30(1): 36-51. Issn: 0149-9114 in [[Ebsco]] </ref>  

The cow towns along the trail were notorious for providing liquor and female company to the cowboys; they usually were not allowed to drink on the trail itself. Historians have vigorously debated just how violent these towns were.<ref>Raymond B. Wrabley,  Jr., "Drunk Driving or Dry Run? Cowboys and Alcohol on the Cattle Trail." ''Kansas History'' 2007 30(1): 36-51. Issn: 0149-9114 in [[Ebsco]]</ref>  

The great cattle drive movie was "Red River" (1948) directed by Howard Hawks, starring John Wayne and Montgomery Clift, which depicted the first great drive on the Chisholm Trail.

The great cattle drive movie was "Red River" (1948) directed by Howard Hawks, starring John Wayne and Montgomery Clift, which depicted the first great drive on the Chisholm Trail.

* Ridings, S.P. ''Chisholm Trail'' (1936)

* Ridings, S.P. ''Chisholm Trail'' (1936)

* Rollins, Philip Ashton. ''The Cowboy: An Unconventional History of Civilization on the Old-Time Cattle Range.'' (1922, reprint 1997). 402 pp.  

* Rollins, Philip Ashton. ''The Cowboy: An Unconventional History of Civilization on the Old-Time Cattle Range.'' (1922, reprint 1997). 402 pp.  

*  Rossel, John. "The Chisholm Trail," ''Kansas Historical Quarterly'' (1936) Vol. 5, No. 1 pp 3-14 [http://www.kancoll.org/khq/1936/36_1_rossel.htm online edition]

*  Rossel, John. "The Chisholm Trail," ''Kansas Historical Quarterly'' (1936) Vol. 5, No. 1 pp 3–14 [http://www.kancoll.org/khq/1936/36_1_rossel.htm online edition]

* Skaggs, Jimmy. ''The Cattle Trailing Industry: Between Supply and Demand, 1866-1890'' (1973), pathbreaking economic study

* Skaggs, Jimmy. ''The Cattle Trailing Industry: Between Supply and Demand, 1866-1890'' (1973), pathbreaking economic study

*  Slatta, Richard W. ''Comparing Cowboys and Frontiers.'' (1997). 320 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Comparing-Cowboys-Frontiers-Richard-Slatta/dp/0806133848/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1214774310&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

*  Slatta, Richard W. ''Comparing Cowboys and Frontiers.'' (1997). 320 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Comparing-Cowboys-Frontiers-Richard-Slatta/dp/0806133848/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1214774310&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

* Carlson,  Paul Howard, ed. ''The Cowboy Way: An Exploration of History and Culture'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Cowboy-Way-Exploration-History-Culture/dp/0896724255/ref=sid_dp_dp excerpt and text search]

* Carlson,  Paul Howard, ed. ''The Cowboy Way: An Exploration of History and Culture'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Cowboy-Way-Exploration-History-Culture/dp/0896724255/ref=sid_dp_dp excerpt and text search]

*  Corkin, Stanley. ''Cowboys as Cold Warriors: The Western and U.S. History.'' (2004). 273 pp.

*  Corkin, Stanley. ''Cowboys as Cold Warriors: The Western and U.S. History.'' (2004). 273 pp.

** *  Corkin, Stanley. "Cowboys and Free Markets: Post-World War II Westerns and U.S. Hegemony," ''Cinema Journal,'' Vol. 39, No. 3 (Spring, 2000), pp. 66-91, focus on Howard Hawks's "Red River" (a cattle drive)  and John Ford's "My Darling Clementine" (on Tombstone); [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1225534 in JSTOR]

** *  Corkin, Stanley. "Cowboys and Free Markets: Post-World War II Westerns and U.S. Hegemony," ''Cinema Journal,'' Vol. 39, No. 3 (Spring, 2000), pp.&nbsp;66–91, focus on Howard Hawks's "Red River" (a cattle drive)  and John Ford's "My Darling Clementine" (on Tombstone); [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1225534 in JSTOR]

* Dippie, Brian W., ed. ''Charlie Russell Roundup: Essays on America's Favorite Cowboy Artist.'' (1999). 328 pp.  

* Dippie, Brian W., ed. ''Charlie Russell Roundup: Essays on America's Favorite Cowboy Artist.'' (1999). 328 pp.  

* Dykstra, Robert R., and Jo Ann Manfra.  "The Circle Dot Cowboys at Dodge City: History and Imagination in Andy Adams's The Log of a Cowboy," ''Western Historical Quarterly'' 33 (2002): 19-40,  

* Dykstra, Robert R., and Jo Ann Manfra.  "The Circle Dot Cowboys at Dodge City: History and Imagination in Andy Adams's The Log of a Cowboy," ''Western Historical Quarterly'' 33 (2002): 19-40,  

* Collins, Hubert E. ''Storm and Stampede on the Chisholm'' (1928, reprint 1998) [http://www.questia.com/read/43221490?title=Storm%20and%20Stampede%20on%20the%20Chisholm online edition]

* Collins, Hubert E. ''Storm and Stampede on the Chisholm'' (1928, reprint 1998) [http://www.questia.com/read/43221490?title=Storm%20and%20Stampede%20on%20the%20Chisholm online edition]

* Hawks, Howard, director. ''Red River'' (1948), influential Hollywood film starring John Wayne and Montgomery Clift  

* Hawks, Howard, director. ''Red River'' (1948), influential Hollywood film starring John Wayne and Montgomery Clift  

* Keese, G. Pomeroy. "Beef," ''Harper's new monthly magazine.'' July 1884  vol. 69, Issue 410 pp. 292-302 [http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK4014-0069-33 online], strong on economic themes

* Keese, G. Pomeroy. "Beef," ''Harper's new monthly magazine.'' July 1884  vol. 69, Issue 410 pp.&nbsp;292–302 [http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK4014-0069-33 online], strong on economic themes

*  Lanning, Jim and Lanning, Judy, eds. ''Texas Cowboys: Memories of the Early Days.'' (1984). 233 pp.  

*  Lanning, Jim and Lanning, Judy, eds. ''Texas Cowboys: Memories of the Early Days.'' (1984). 233 pp.  

* Logsdon, Guy, ed. ''"The Whorehouse Bells Were Ringing" and Other Songs Cowboys Sing.'' (1989). 388 pp.

* Logsdon, Guy, ed. ''"The Whorehouse Bells Were Ringing" and Other Songs Cowboys Sing.'' (1989). 388 pp.