Changes

'''Africa''' is the continental landmass to the south of Europe. It is connected to Asia by the [[Sinai Peninsula]] in [[Egypt]]; the remaining borders are the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the north, the [[Red Sea]] and [[Indian Ocean]] to the east, and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the west.

'''Africa''' is the continental landmass to the south of Europe. It is connected to Asia by the [[Sinai Peninsula]] in [[Egypt]]; the remaining borders are the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the north, the [[Red Sea]] and [[Indian Ocean]] to the east, and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the west.

Africa is the poorest continent in the world. "George Ayittey’s discussion of how country after country in Africa opted to throw out the [[capitalist]] baby with the [[colonialist]] bathwater on independence is a sobering example of [[libertarian]] [[class theory]] in action. He minces no words, characterizing most African countries as ruled by 'unrepentant gangsters.'"<ref> [http://www.thefreemanonline.org/book-reviews/making-poor-nations-rich-entrepreneurship-and-the-process-of-economic-development/ Making Poor Nations Rich: Entrepreneurship and the Process of Economic Development By Benjamin Powell, ed. • Reviewed by: Robert Batemarco]</ref>

Africa is the poorest continent in the world. "George Ayittey’s discussion of how country after country in Africa opted to throw out the [[capitalist]] baby with the [[colonialist]] bathwater on independence is a sobering example of [[libertarian]] [[class theory]] in action. He minces no words, characterizing most African countries as ruled by 'unrepentant gangsters.'"<ref>[http://www.thefreemanonline.org/book-reviews/making-poor-nations-rich-entrepreneurship-and-the-process-of-economic-development/ Making Poor Nations Rich: Entrepreneurship and the Process of Economic Development By Benjamin Powell, ed. • Reviewed by: Robert Batemarco]</ref>

==Land==

==Land==

===Topography===

===Topography===

[[Image:Africa islam 87.jpg|thumb|Islam in Africa today]]

[[Image:Africa islam 87.jpg|thumb|Islam in Africa today]]

The Christian churches, based on missionary work of the 19th and 20th centuries,<ref>There are remnants of much older Coptic Christian settlements in Ethiopia.</ref> claim 45% of the population, of whom 55% are Protestants. There are about 150 million Roman Catholics on the continent, led by 33,000 priests.<ref> Using projections based on data at [http://www.fides.org/eng/statistiche/2000_0.html Fides News Service]</ref>  The Anglican Church includes about 5 million members in Nigeria, 2.4 million in South Africa, 2.2 million in Uganda, 1.5 million in Kenya, 1.0 million in Tanzania, and 2 million or so elsewhere in Africa.<ref>See [http://anglican.org/domain/admin/countries.html Anglican statistics] </ref>

The Christian churches, based on missionary work of the 19th and 20th centuries,<ref>There are remnants of much older Coptic Christian settlements in Ethiopia.</ref> claim 45% of the population, of whom 55% are Protestants. There are about 150 million Roman Catholics on the continent, led by 33,000 priests.<ref>Using projections based on data at [http://www.fides.org/eng/statistiche/2000_0.html Fides News Service]</ref>  The Anglican Church includes about 5 million members in Nigeria, 2.4 million in South Africa, 2.2 million in Uganda, 1.5 million in Kenya, 1.0 million in Tanzania, and 2 million or so elsewhere in Africa.<ref>See [http://anglican.org/domain/admin/countries.html Anglican statistics]</ref>

For statistical detail on each church see [http://www.adherents.com/index.php Adherent.com], which compiles membership data from many sources.

For statistical detail on each church see [http://www.adherents.com/index.php Adherent.com], which compiles membership data from many sources.

China’s technique is to sign agreements with governments to build huge infrastructure projects in exchange for minerals. Angola, for example, guaranteed Chinese access to oil in Africa’s fourth largest oil producer; Angola's economy is now booming and it is rebuilding after the massive destruction caused by a civil war that lasted decades.  

China’s technique is to sign agreements with governments to build huge infrastructure projects in exchange for minerals. Angola, for example, guaranteed Chinese access to oil in Africa’s fourth largest oil producer; Angola's economy is now booming and it is rebuilding after the massive destruction caused by a civil war that lasted decades.  

The worldwide [[recession of 2008]], and continued political instability, has cooled China's activity.  As commodity prices have plunged and several of China’s African partners have fallen deeper into chaos, China has backed away from some of its riskiest and most aggressive plans. China now demands the same guarantees that Western companies have long sought for their investments: economic and political stability.<ref> Lydia Polgreen, "As Chinese Investments in Africa Drop, Hope Sinks," [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/26/world/africa/26chinaafrica.html?_r=1&hpw ''New York Times'' Mar. 25, 2009] </ref>

The worldwide [[recession of 2008]], and continued political instability, has cooled China's activity.  As commodity prices have plunged and several of China’s African partners have fallen deeper into chaos, China has backed away from some of its riskiest and most aggressive plans. China now demands the same guarantees that Western companies have long sought for their investments: economic and political stability.<ref>Lydia Polgreen, "As Chinese Investments in Africa Drop, Hope Sinks," [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/26/world/africa/26chinaafrica.html?_r=1&hpw ''New York Times'' Mar. 25, 2009]</ref>

== History ==

== History ==

European national boundaries were a new concept for much of Africa which was accustomed to small tribal or village living and didn't understand how many such tribes and villages, which often warred with each other, could be put together under one national banner.  This forced nationhood apart from African cultural groups and village life has continued to be a source of strife in African nations to this day.

European national boundaries were a new concept for much of Africa which was accustomed to small tribal or village living and didn't understand how many such tribes and villages, which often warred with each other, could be put together under one national banner.  This forced nationhood apart from African cultural groups and village life has continued to be a source of strife in African nations to this day.

===1900-1960===

===1900-1960===

In 1900 Africa comprised many rural societies with a few towns and little infrastructure. From 1900 to 1960 Africa underwent a sustained period of unprecedented modernization, almost revolutionary in its medium and long-term effects. Urbanization created cities, as it led to mass migration and slow, if patchy, industrialization. Throughout the continent, towns expanded swiftly and new urban centers grew in the half-century following the imposition of colonial rule in the 1890s and early years of the twentieth century. Towns in key locations such as [[Abidjan]], [[Port Harcourt]], [[Lusaka]] and [[Nairobi]] grew to be cities, typically founded as ports, harbors, administrative and mining centers, and/or as transport--especially railway--focal points. For example, in the colonial Gold Coast ([[Ghana]]) the western town of Takoradi became the colony's chief railway town. Farther down the coast, the growth of the capital city, [[Accra]], was swift: its population increased from about 18,000 in 1901 to 135,000 in 1951.

In 1900 Africa comprised many rural societies with a few towns and little infrastructure. From 1900 to 1960 Africa underwent a sustained period of unprecedented modernization, almost revolutionary in its medium and long-term effects. Urbanization created cities, as it led to mass migration and slow, if patchy, industrialization. Throughout the continent, towns expanded swiftly and new urban centers grew in the half-century following the imposition of colonial rule in the 1890s and early years of the twentieth century. Towns in key locations such as [[Abidjan]], [[Port Harcourt]], [[Lusaka]] and [[Nairobi]] grew to be cities, typically founded as ports, harbors, administrative and mining centers, and/or as transport—especially railway—focal points. For example, in the colonial Gold Coast ([[Ghana]]) the western town of Takoradi became the colony's chief railway town. Farther down the coast, the growth of the capital city, [[Accra]], was swift: its population increased from about 18,000 in 1901 to 135,000 in 1951.

Urbanization and the development of transport infrastructures were accompanied by rapid population growth. Due in part to improvements in health care and to the progressive conquest by medical science of illnesses such as bubonic plague, yellow fever and yaws, Africa's population grew by almost 40% between 1900 and 1960. Migrants flooded into the urban centers, while traditional communities were disrupted and consequently changed as a result of their gradual insertion into the modern world economy and the effects of an increasingly centralized political environment.  Power was in the capital cities. The result of population growth, urbanization, increased educational and employment opportunities, the introduction and development of cash crops for sale on the world market, and the virtual end  of slavery was a new social order. The colonial system emphasized achievement rather than family name alone. While it would be an exaggeration to claim that a purely meritocratic system developed, but it was certainly the case that for many Africans upward social mobility was for the first time something that could be earned rather than bestowed by the circumstances of birth. The army, for example, trained and equipped by the colonial powers, was a popular route. Across Africa the urban-rural divide grew wider. By the 1930s, rural dwellers were separated from urbanites by wide differences in employment, access to health care, housing standards, and educational opportunity. After World War II, further subdivisions of class, ethnicity and occupation also became sharper, with old clan loyalties trumping meritocracy when they conflicted.  Taken together these developments had the effect of stimulating many Africans, especially the educated elite, to question European rule and demand independence.  The colonial powers had done little to prepare for the day, but almost overnight in the 1960s most colonies became independent nations. In the case of the French Empire, Paris kept tight controls.  Britain gave the new nations a free hand, and most set up strong-man governments. In the case of the Portuguese and Belgian colonies, total chaos and civil wars resulted.

Urbanization and the development of transport infrastructures were accompanied by rapid population growth. Due in part to improvements in health care and to the progressive conquest by medical science of illnesses such as bubonic plague, yellow fever and yaws, Africa's population grew by almost 40% between 1900 and 1960. Migrants flooded into the urban centers, while traditional communities were disrupted and consequently changed as a result of their gradual insertion into the modern world economy and the effects of an increasingly centralized political environment.  Power was in the capital cities. The result of population growth, urbanization, increased educational and employment opportunities, the introduction and development of cash crops for sale on the world market, and the virtual end  of slavery was a new social order. The colonial system emphasized achievement rather than family name alone. While it would be an exaggeration to claim that a purely meritocratic system developed, but it was certainly the case that for many Africans upward social mobility was for the first time something that could be earned rather than bestowed by the circumstances of birth. The army, for example, trained and equipped by the colonial powers, was a popular route. Across Africa the urban-rural divide grew wider. By the 1930s, rural dwellers were separated from urbanites by wide differences in employment, access to health care, housing standards, and educational opportunity. After World War II, further subdivisions of class, ethnicity and occupation also became sharper, with old clan loyalties trumping meritocracy when they conflicted.  Taken together these developments had the effect of stimulating many Africans, especially the educated elite, to question European rule and demand independence.  The colonial powers had done little to prepare for the day, but almost overnight in the 1960s most colonies became independent nations. In the case of the French Empire, Paris kept tight controls.  Britain gave the new nations a free hand, and most set up strong-man governments. In the case of the Portuguese and Belgian colonies, total chaos and civil wars resulted.

Because most colonies were ethnically and linguistically heterogeneous--for example, Nigeria has some 250 ethnic groups or 'tribes', the Gold Coast/Ghana at least thirty--it was impossible to appeal to a sense of nationhood in terms of ethnicity or language as in Europe.

Because most colonies were ethnically and linguistically heterogeneous—for example, Nigeria has some 250 ethnic groups or 'tribes', the Gold Coast/Ghana at least thirty—it was impossible to appeal to a sense of nationhood in terms of ethnicity or language as in Europe.

===Social Structure===

===Social Structure===

By the 1950s, the native population of the typical Sub-Saharan colony can be analyzed in terms of major groups, from the most powerful to the least.  Of course, the colonial administrators (and their associated businessmen, soldiers and missionaries) were at the top of the scale.  

By the 1950s, the native population of the typical Sub-Saharan colony can be analyzed in terms of major groups, from the most powerful to the least.  Of course, the colonial administrators (and their associated businessmen, soldiers and missionaries) were at the top of the scale.  

# An aspiring middle class who operated small businesses.  They competed with immigrants from India and the Middle East. Large businesses were run by Europeans (or in some cases by immigrants from India or Lebanon).  They had little capital and depended on selling products that fir native tastes, like local foods. They seldom dealt in international trade.

# An aspiring middle class who operated small businesses.  They competed with immigrants from India and the Middle East. Large businesses were run by Europeans (or in some cases by immigrants from India or Lebanon).  They had little capital and depended on selling products that fir native tastes, like local foods. They seldom dealt in international trade.

# A rapidly growing clerical element, usually with a high school education from missionary or state schools. Many were office clerks who worked for international firms and picked up organizational and language skills.

# A rapidly growing clerical element, usually with a high school education from missionary or state schools. Many were office clerks who worked for international firms and picked up organizational and language skills.

# The skilled and semiskilled workforce--a fast-growing element; many joined labor unions, especially in transportation, mining and the docks.  

# The skilled and semiskilled workforce—a fast-growing element; many joined labor unions, especially in transportation, mining and the docks.  

# Informal and illegal workers, who traded and smuggled and operated brothels, or ran illegal gambling operations.  

# Informal and illegal workers, who traded and smuggled and operated brothels, or ran illegal gambling operations.  

#Out in the countryside, a large, poor body of cash-crop farmers--a group that formed often powerful farmers' associations to seek better prices for their products, especially cocoa. Many were heavily in debt to local moneylenders.  

#Out in the countryside, a large, poor body of cash-crop farmers—a group that formed often powerful farmers' associations to seek better prices for their products, especially cocoa. Many were heavily in debt to local moneylenders.  

# At the bottom came the peasant farmers living in traditional style, growing their own food, seeing very little cash. They were generally controlled by local chiefs and had a strong loyalty to the tribe.

# At the bottom came the peasant farmers living in traditional style, growing their own food, seeing very little cash. They were generally controlled by local chiefs and had a strong loyalty to the tribe.

[[File:Naude The Mountain behind Groote Schuur.jpg|thumb|The Mountain behind Groote Schuur by Pieter Hugo Naudé]]

[[File:Naude The Mountain behind Groote Schuur.jpg|thumb|The Mountain behind Groote Schuur by Pieter Hugo Naudé]]

*[[North Africa]], Arabic  

*[[North Africa]], Arabic  

*[[ Sub-Saharan Africa]] , south of the [[Sahara Desert]]

*[[Sub-Saharan Africa]] , south of the [[Sahara Desert]]

*[[South Africa]]

*[[South Africa]]

*[[East Africa]]

*[[East Africa]]