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History of Texas (view source)

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===American settlers===

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American colonization of Texas began in 1821 under the leadership of [[Moses Austin]], who was awarded a permit by Spanish authorities at San Antonio to settle 300 families in Texas. The contract was later honored by the National Congress of Mexico after independence was won. Austin died on his return to the United States to begin the task of colonization, but the provisions of the agreement were subsequently carried out by his son [[Stephen Austin]]. Empresarios were licensed by the Mexican government and continued the recruiting of colonists for permanent settlement in Texas. Attracted by the prospect of free ~~land--the~~ United States had no such policy at the ~~time--the~~ bulk of settlers came from the states of the Old South, as well as from Britain, Ireland, and Germany. Later efforts to balance the American predominance by encouraging Mexicans to colonize proved generally unsuccessful.

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American colonization of Texas began in 1821 under the leadership of [[Moses Austin]], who was awarded a permit by Spanish authorities at San Antonio to settle 300 families in Texas. The contract was later honored by the National Congress of Mexico after independence was won. Austin died on his return to the United States to begin the task of colonization, but the provisions of the agreement were subsequently carried out by his son [[Stephen Austin]]. Empresarios were licensed by the Mexican government and continued the recruiting of colonists for permanent settlement in Texas. Attracted by the prospect of free land—the United States had no such policy at the time—the bulk of settlers came from the states of the Old South, as well as from Britain, Ireland, and Germany. Later efforts to balance the American predominance by encouraging Mexicans to colonize proved generally unsuccessful.

[[File:Stephen Austin.jpg|left|200px|Stephen F. Austin, 1793-1836, colonizer; the "Father of Texas"]]

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Campaigning along the coast, Gen. José Urrea forced the surrender of Col. James Fannin at [[Goliad]]. Even though Urrea had pledged honorable treatment, Santa Anna personally ordered the deaths of Fannin and about 400 of his followers; and on Palm Sunday the executions were carried out by a firing squad. Since the majority of Fannin's men had recently arrived in Texas as volunteers from the United States, the executions were designed to discourage further aid in the cause of Texas.

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News of the fall of the Alamo reached Gen. Houston at Gonzales. Mustering a band of early colonists to Texas and some American volunteers, Houston retreated to the Brazos River, casually pursued by an overconfident Santa Anna. Believing victory to be in his grasp, the Mexican commander turned to pursue the Texas provisional government at Harrisburg; but, spurred by President David G. Burnet, the administrators escaped to Galveston. Now convinced that the strategic position was in his favor, Houston left his encampment along the Brazos and blocked Santa Anna's troops at [[San Jacinto]] as they tried to regain their original position. The decisive battle of the campaign was fought at San Jacinto on April 21, 1836. Inspired by the rallying shout, "Remember the Alamo, remember Goliad," the Texans vanquished the Mexican army and imprisoned its leader. In return for his life Santa Anna signed the Treaties of Velasco that recognized the independence of Texas, with its boundary at the Rio Grande.<ref> The Mexican Congress repudiated the treaties.</ref>

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News of the fall of the Alamo reached Gen. Houston at Gonzales. Mustering a band of early colonists to Texas and some American volunteers, Houston retreated to the Brazos River, casually pursued by an overconfident Santa Anna. Believing victory to be in his grasp, the Mexican commander turned to pursue the Texas provisional government at Harrisburg; but, spurred by President David G. Burnet, the administrators escaped to Galveston. Now convinced that the strategic position was in his favor, Houston left his encampment along the Brazos and blocked Santa Anna's troops at [[San Jacinto]] as they tried to regain their original position. The decisive battle of the campaign was fought at San Jacinto on April 21, 1836. Inspired by the rallying shout, "Remember the Alamo, remember Goliad," the Texans vanquished the Mexican army and imprisoned its leader. In return for his life Santa Anna signed the Treaties of Velasco that recognized the independence of Texas, with its boundary at the Rio Grande.<ref>The Mexican Congress repudiated the treaties.</ref>

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The Texas navy also contributed to the victory. Failure to control the sea lanes of the Gulf of Mexico impeded the movement of supplies to Mexican troops and compelled Santa Anna to undertake a lengthy and hazardous overland march into Texas. Financed mainly by contributions from the United States, four Texas sloops proved more than a match for Santa Anna's naval squadrons. But in the period of the early republic the navy languished under Houston as Mexico partially blockaded the Texas coast. President Mirabeau B. Lamar determined to change the situation and embarked on a policy of naval construction. A partial alliance was entered into with the state of Yucatán, which was also seeking independence from Mexico. The navy was employed in that campaign.<ref> After annexation the ships became the property of the U.S. Navy.</ref>

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The Texas navy also contributed to the victory. Failure to control the sea lanes of the Gulf of Mexico impeded the movement of supplies to Mexican troops and compelled Santa Anna to undertake a lengthy and hazardous overland march into Texas. Financed mainly by contributions from the United States, four Texas sloops proved more than a match for Santa Anna's naval squadrons. But in the period of the early republic the navy languished under Houston as Mexico partially blockaded the Texas coast. President Mirabeau B. Lamar determined to change the situation and embarked on a policy of naval construction. A partial alliance was entered into with the state of Yucatán, which was also seeking independence from Mexico. The navy was employed in that campaign.<ref>After annexation the ships became the property of the U.S. Navy.</ref>

===[[Republic of Texas]]===

[[File:Texas1835.jpg|thumb|550px|Texas in 1835]]

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During the early stages of the war, Texas had been governed by a "Consultation." When all hope of a negotiated settlement proved unrealistic and Mexican liberals failed to support the goal of separate statehood, a convention was called to debate the question of independence. A declaration of independence was essential to facilitate volunteering and financial aid from the United States, and on Mar. 2, 1836, it was promulgated. A constitution for an independent Texas was also written, with the stipulation that it would not become legally binding until ratified by the people. With independence achieved, the [[Republic of Texas]] was born. Elected president in September 1836, Houston quickly turned his attention to the internal problems of land legislation, defense against Mexico and Indian raids, and a sound financial base for Texas. But Mexico soon repudiated the Treaty of Velasco, whereby Santa Anna had acknowledged Texan independence. The United States became the first nation to commence diplomatic relations with Texas, and Britain soon followed. Annexation talks were tentatively begun but were quickly abandoned in the face of substantial northern antislavery pressure.

[[File:Col-tex.jpg|thumb|300px|San Antonio]]

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Lamar was elected president in 1838. Believing that the likelihood of annexation was small, Lamar opened diplomatic relations with Britain and France; they tried and failed to have Mexico face reality and recognize the new republic, which originated in a revolution just as Mexico itself had in 1821. When Mexico refused to meet with peace commissioners, Lamar launched a military expedition to Santa Fe in order to assert the Texan claim to the Rio Grande as its western boundary. Miscalculating the ~~anti--Santa~~ Anna sentiment in New Mexico, the poorly led Texans were captured and marched in irons overland to Mexico City; they were eventually released.

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Lamar was elected president in 1838. Believing that the likelihood of annexation was small, Lamar opened diplomatic relations with Britain and France; they tried and failed to have Mexico face reality and recognize the new republic, which originated in a revolution just as Mexico itself had in 1821. When Mexico refused to meet with peace commissioners, Lamar launched a military expedition to Santa Fe in order to assert the Texan claim to the Rio Grande as its western boundary. Miscalculating the anti—Santa Anna sentiment in New Mexico, the poorly led Texans were captured and marched in irons overland to Mexico City; they were eventually released.

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Annexation was highly controversial in the U.S., primarily because anti-slavery forces did not want to see new territory opened for the expansion of slavery, and [[Whig Party|Whigs]] opposed any geographical expansion (because it would delay modernization).<ref> Joel H. Silbey, ''Storm over Texas: The Annexation Controversy and the Road to Civil War.''(2005)</ref> Nevertheless Texas grew rapidly, reaching 100,000 population by 1846, with settlements reaching as far to the northwest as Waco and Fort Worth. The capital was moved to Austin, in the west.

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Annexation was highly controversial in the U.S., primarily because anti-slavery forces did not want to see new territory opened for the expansion of slavery, and [[Whig Party|Whigs]] opposed any geographical expansion (because it would delay modernization).<ref>Joel H. Silbey, ''Storm over Texas: The Annexation Controversy and the Road to Civil War.''(2005)</ref> Nevertheless Texas grew rapidly, reaching 100,000 population by 1846, with settlements reaching as far to the northwest as Waco and Fort Worth. The capital was moved to Austin, in the west.

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Texans waged intermittent warfare against the Indians, particularly the Cherokee and Comanche, who continuously raided frontier settlements. President Houston had a tolerant policy, but President Lamar did not. When the Cherokee were negotiating for Mexican support to attack frontier settlements, Lamar decided to buy them out. They would not sell and Texas drove them out in 1839; they resettled in what is now Oklahoma. The Comanches and Texans fought a series of pitched battles until Houston became president again in 1841 and made peace again.<ref> Gary Clayton Anderson, ''The Conquest of Texas: Ethnic Cleansing in the Promised Land, 1820-1875.'' (2005); F. Todd Smith, ''From Dominance to Disappearance: The Indians of Texas and the Near Southwest, 1786-1859'' (2005)</ref> At the same time, the new republic initiated a progressive public school and homestead program. Houston was reelected in 1841. Despite numerous border provocations, he insisted on a posture of peace toward Mexico. Financial conditions made stability imperative as the republic's indebtedness approached $10 million and the value of Texas currency depreciated to less than twenty cents on the dollar. Rivalry between east and west Texas over land titles and the location of the permanent seat of government also troubled the president.

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Texans waged intermittent warfare against the Indians, particularly the Cherokee and Comanche, who continuously raided frontier settlements. President Houston had a tolerant policy, but President Lamar did not. When the Cherokee were negotiating for Mexican support to attack frontier settlements, Lamar decided to buy them out. They would not sell and Texas drove them out in 1839; they resettled in what is now Oklahoma. The Comanches and Texans fought a series of pitched battles until Houston became president again in 1841 and made peace again.<ref>Gary Clayton Anderson, ''The Conquest of Texas: Ethnic Cleansing in the Promised Land, 1820-1875.'' (2005); F. Todd Smith, ''From Dominance to Disappearance: The Indians of Texas and the Near Southwest, 1786-1859'' (2005)</ref> At the same time, the new republic initiated a progressive public school and homestead program. Houston was reelected in 1841. Despite numerous border provocations, he insisted on a posture of peace toward Mexico. Financial conditions made stability imperative as the republic's indebtedness approached $10 million and the value of Texas currency depreciated to less than twenty cents on the dollar. Rivalry between east and west Texas over land titles and the location of the permanent seat of government also troubled the president.

===Annexation 1845===

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===Population===

Intensified migration to Texas after statehood raised the population to about 150,000. Societies such as the Texas Emigration and Land Company now pledged to settle colonists who would agree to constitute a militia for defense against the Indians; in return they would receive a grant of 320 acres of choice land. Most of the newcomers continued to migrate from the states of the lower South; slavery was granted legal protection by the Texas constitution of 1845.

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The Texas population by 1860 was quite diverse, with large elements of European whites (from the American South), African Americans (mostly slaves brought from the east), Tejanos (Hispanics with Spanish heritage), and about 20,000 recent German immigrants.<ref> [http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/GG/png2.html from ''Handbook of Texas Online'']</ref>

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The Texas population by 1860 was quite diverse, with large elements of European whites (from the American South), African Americans (mostly slaves brought from the east), Tejanos (Hispanics with Spanish heritage), and about 20,000 recent German immigrants.<ref>[http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/GG/png2.html from ''Handbook of Texas Online'']</ref>

:The Germans who settled Texas were diverse in many ways. They included peasant farmers and intellectuals; Protestants, Catholics, Jews, and atheists; Prussians, Saxons, Hessians, and Alsatians; abolitionists and slaveholders; farmers and townsfolk; frugal, honest folk and ax murderers. They differed in dialect, customs, and physical features. A majority had been farmers in Germany, and most arrived seeking economic opportunities. A few dissident intellectuals fleeing the 1848 revolutions in Germany sought political freedom, but few, save perhaps the Wends, went for religious freedom.''

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Slavery ended and [[Reconstruction]] began in Texas on June 19, 1865, celebrated by the Freedmen as "Juneteenth". Andrew J. Hamilton, a staunch Unionist before the war, was named provisional governor by President [[Andrew Johnson]], but distruptions and violence were endemic throughout the state. The Reconstruction Act of 1867 shut down the incumbent government, put the state under control of the U.S. Army, and restructured politics.

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<blockquote>The first critical step...was the registration of voters according to guidelines established by Congress and interpreted by Generals Sheridan and Griffin. The Reconstruction Acts called for registering all adult males, white and black, except those who had ever sworn an oath to uphold the Constitution of the United States and then engaged in rebellion.… Sheridan interpreted these restrictions stringently, barring from registration not only all pre-1861 officials of state and local governments who had supported the Confederacy but also all city officeholders and even minor functionaries such as sextons of cemeteries. In May Griffin...appointed a three-man board of registrars for each county, making his choices on the advice of known Unionists and local Freedman's Bureau agents. In every county where practicable a freedman served as one of the three registrars.... Final registration amounted to approximately 59,633 whites and 49,479 blacks. It is impossible to say how many whites were rejected or refused to register (estimates vary from 7,500 to 12,000), but blacks, who constituted only about 30 percent of the state's population, were significantly overrepresented at 45 percent of all voters.<ref> Randolph Campbell, ''Gone to Texas'' 2003 p. 276.</ref> </blockquote>

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<blockquote>The first critical step...was the registration of voters according to guidelines established by Congress and interpreted by Generals Sheridan and Griffin. The Reconstruction Acts called for registering all adult males, white and black, except those who had ever sworn an oath to uphold the Constitution of the United States and then engaged in rebellion.… Sheridan interpreted these restrictions stringently, barring from registration not only all pre-1861 officials of state and local governments who had supported the Confederacy but also all city officeholders and even minor functionaries such as sextons of cemeteries. In May Griffin...appointed a three-man board of registrars for each county, making his choices on the advice of known Unionists and local Freedman's Bureau agents. In every county where practicable a freedman served as one of the three registrars.... Final registration amounted to approximately 59,633 whites and 49,479 blacks. It is impossible to say how many whites were rejected or refused to register (estimates vary from 7,500 to 12,000), but blacks, who constituted only about 30 percent of the state's population, were significantly overrepresented at 45 percent of all voters.<ref>Randolph Campbell, ''Gone to Texas'' 2003 p. 276.</ref> </blockquote>

The [[Republican Party]] won the elections of 1869, issued a new state constitution, and elected E. J. Davis as governor. The Republicans were led by native Texans ("[[Scalawags]]"), with few Carpetbaggers (northerners); the Freedmen (newly freed slaves) provided the bulk of the vote. Legislative inexperience was primarily responsible for the passage of many questionable statutes, particularly concerning taxation. Financial irregularities increased; in their spleen at "bottom rail on top" (a reference to the improved status of blacks) some Texans embraced the [[Ku Klux Klan]] and other violent informal groups seeking to impede legitimate political gains of Freedmen. By 1874 the conservative Democrats, or [[Redeemers]], took power as Richard Coke, was elected governor. Shortly thereafter the last federal troops were withdrawn from military occupation duty.

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John L. Haynes (~~1821-88~~) was a Texas politician and writer who dissented with many of the typical Southern views of the time. From the late 1850's through the 1880's, Haynes won notoriety as a protector of Mexican Americans, an opponent of secession, a Union army officer, a supporter of freedmen's rights, and a Republican "scalawag." The unifying theme in Haynes's life was his consistent opposition to the dominance of Texas politics and society by a minority of conservative, Democratic, and Anglo planters. He was a Southern dissenter by principle, not merely expedience.<ref> James Marten, "John L. Haynes: a Southern Dissenter in Texas." ''Southern Studies'' 1990 1(3): 257-279. Issn: 0735-8342 </ref>

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John L. Haynes (1821–88) was a Texas politician and writer who dissented with many of the typical Southern views of the time. From the late 1850's through the 1880's, Haynes won notoriety as a protector of Mexican Americans, an opponent of secession, a Union army officer, a supporter of freedmen's rights, and a Republican "scalawag." The unifying theme in Haynes's life was his consistent opposition to the dominance of Texas politics and society by a minority of conservative, Democratic, and Anglo planters. He was a Southern dissenter by principle, not merely expedience.<ref>James Marten, "John L. Haynes: a Southern Dissenter in Texas." ''Southern Studies'' 1990 1(3): 257-279. Issn: 0735-8342</ref>

After Reconstruction Texas was a part of the [[Solid South]] that nearly always voted for the Democratic nominees, but the Democrats were split, with domininance of the conservative pro-business [[Bourbon Democrats]] challenged by spokesmen for poor white farmers.

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The Gilded Age of the 1870s and 1880s generated a major economic boom for the 800,00 people recorded in the 1870 census. Internal railroad construction, made possible by state land bonuses, increased appreciably. By the mid-1870s nearly every major city in Texas had passenger and freight service, and attention turned to interstate and transcontinental railroads. The Missouri, Kansas and Texas (Katy) Railroad, chartered in Kansas, was completed across northern Texas in 1872. In that year the Houston and Texas Central became a part of the gigantic [[Southern Pacific]] railway system, the International and Great Northern Railway spanned the state from northeast to southwest, and the Texas and Pacific, building westward, joined the Southern Pacific at a point near El Paso and ran to San Francisco.

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[[Image:Tx-longhorn.jpg|thumb|275px|After 1865 cowboys drove herds of longhorn cattle over the Chisholm Trail to the railheads in Kansas; they were replaced with hybrid short-horned breeds after 1900.<ref> Donald E. Worcester, "Longhorn cattle," [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/LL/atl2.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)]</ref>]]

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[[Image:Tx-longhorn.jpg|thumb|275px|After 1865 cowboys drove herds of longhorn cattle over the Chisholm Trail to the railheads in Kansas; they were replaced with hybrid short-horned breeds after 1900.<ref>Donald E. Worcester, "Longhorn cattle," [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/LL/atl2.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)]</ref>]]

Texas had long had many cattle, but because markets were far and transportation unavailable, they had little value. Many large scale [[Cattle drives]] moved herds north to railheads in Kansas. The construction of railroads from Chicago to Kansas put the great Chicago cattle market within reach. The first major cattle drive north to Kansas took place in 1866. For 20 years thereafter, large herds of cattle were driven north along the Chisholm Trail. As the railroads were built across Texas, they ended the long cattle drives. The open range was quickly closed, and the farmers followed the cattlemen west.

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==Progressive Era==

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The [[Progressive Era]] in Texas began earlier than most states, with the election of Governor [[James Stephen Hogg]] (1851-1906, governor 1891-1895) in 1890 and his reelection in 1892. Hogg was the leading reformer of the era, taking credit for establishing the [[Texas Railroad Commission]], ousting Standard Oil, and passing laws to stop outside monopoly control of Texas oil and other resources was enacted.<ref> See Robert C. Cotner, ''James Stephen Hogg: A Biography'' (1959); Cotner, "Hogg, James Stephen, (1851-1906)" in [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/HH/fho17.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)] </ref> Hogg was a reformer and an advocate of a strong state government. Policies that he established have continued and are reflected in the [[Texas Railroad Commission|railroad commission's]] supervision of the oil and transportation industries, the attorney general's prosecutions of antitrust activities, and state support of an advanced public education program. Hogg, the regular Democrat, was reelected after an intense contest in 1892, with 44% percent of the vote (190,500) to 31% (133,400) for conservative [[Bourbon Democrats|Jeffersonians Democrat]] George W. Clark (1841-1918)<ref>Doug Johnson, "Clark, George W." in [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/CC/fcl5.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)] </ref> and 25% (108,500) for Populist Thomas Nugent (~~1841-95~~)<ref> Nugent had 36% in a losing race in 1894. See Worth Robert Miller, "Nugent, Thomas Lewis," in [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/NN/fnu2.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)] </ref> . Hogg's coalition included white farmers, a few important businessmen who did not object to the Railroad Commission, manual workers in the cities, and a some black voters. Clark had the support of most businessmen, large ranchers in the south and west, and blacks controlled by the Republican Party. Nugent's strength lay white small farmers; he fared poorly among blacks.

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The [[Progressive Era]] in Texas began earlier than most states, with the election of Governor [[James Stephen Hogg]] (1851-1906, governor 1891-1895) in 1890 and his reelection in 1892. Hogg was the leading reformer of the era, taking credit for establishing the [[Texas Railroad Commission]], ousting Standard Oil, and passing laws to stop outside monopoly control of Texas oil and other resources was enacted.<ref>See Robert C. Cotner, ''James Stephen Hogg: A Biography'' (1959); Cotner, "Hogg, James Stephen, (1851-1906)" in [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/HH/fho17.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)]</ref> Hogg was a reformer and an advocate of a strong state government. Policies that he established have continued and are reflected in the [[Texas Railroad Commission|railroad commission's]] supervision of the oil and transportation industries, the attorney general's prosecutions of antitrust activities, and state support of an advanced public education program. Hogg, the regular Democrat, was reelected after an intense contest in 1892, with 44% percent of the vote (190,500) to 31% (133,400) for conservative [[Bourbon Democrats|Jeffersonians Democrat]] George W. Clark (1841-1918)<ref>Doug Johnson, "Clark, George W." in [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/CC/fcl5.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)]</ref> and 25% (108,500) for Populist Thomas Nugent (1841–95).<ref>Nugent had 36% in a losing race in 1894. See Worth Robert Miller, "Nugent, Thomas Lewis," in [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/NN/fnu2.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)]</ref> Hogg's coalition included white farmers, a few important businessmen who did not object to the Railroad Commission, manual workers in the cities, and a some black voters. Clark had the support of most businessmen, large ranchers in the south and west, and blacks controlled by the Republican Party. Nugent's strength lay white small farmers; he fared poorly among blacks.

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Businessman [[Colonel House|Edward House]] (1858-1938), was Hogg's campaign manager; behind the scenes House engineered the election of three more protégés as ~~governor--most~~ of them more conservative than Hogg. In 1913 House became the top adviser to President [[Woodrow Wilson]], and brought several Texans to high office.<ref>Charles E. Neu, "House, Edward Mandell," [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/HH/fho66.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)]</ref> In 1905, progressives passed a law requiring a direct primary in major elections and passed a series of corporate taxes. In 1906, a progressive Democrat, Thomas Campbell, won the governorship, and the legislature responded with an unprecedented outpouring of reforms, including regulation of the insurance industry, state insurance for bank deposits, additional tax reforms, improvements in public education, abolition of the barbarous convict-leasing system, pure food and drug legislation, and several labor safety laws.

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Businessman [[Colonel House|Edward House]] (1858-1938), was Hogg's campaign manager; behind the scenes House engineered the election of three more protégés as governor—most of them more conservative than Hogg. In 1913 House became the top adviser to President [[Woodrow Wilson]], and brought several Texans to high office.<ref>Charles E. Neu, "House, Edward Mandell," [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/HH/fho66.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)]</ref> In 1905, progressives passed a law requiring a direct primary in major elections and passed a series of corporate taxes. In 1906, a progressive Democrat, Thomas Campbell, won the governorship, and the legislature responded with an unprecedented outpouring of reforms, including regulation of the insurance industry, state insurance for bank deposits, additional tax reforms, improvements in public education, abolition of the barbarous convict-leasing system, pure food and drug legislation, and several labor safety laws.

==Population==

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Texas reached 4 million population in 1910, making it the fifth largest state, and continued to grow. It remained primarily rural, based on cotton farms<ref> Cotton remained king despite the arrival in 1894 of the boll weevil, an insect that ate the unripe bolls and caused a steady drop in yields per acre over the next thirty years.</ref> and ranches, with 30% living in numerous villages and towns and a few cities.

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Texas reached 4 million population in 1910, making it the fifth largest state, and continued to grow. It remained primarily rural, based on cotton farms<ref>Cotton remained king despite the arrival in 1894 of the boll weevil, an insect that ate the unripe bolls and caused a steady drop in yields per acre over the next thirty years.</ref> and ranches, with 30% living in numerous villages and towns and a few cities.

[[Image:Ft-Worth-Tx-1909.jpg|thumb|275px|Railroad station, Ft Worth, 1909]]

Galveston, with 17,000 was the largest city in 1870; it recovered from the devastating hurricane of 1900, which killed 6,000 people, and reached 37,000 in 1910. Galveston became nationally famous for its modernized "commission form" of government that stressed efficiency and minimized patronage. The largest city in 1910 was San Antonio at 96,000. Houston (79,000 in 1910) was a rail and oil center; it competed with Dallas (92,000), the banking and merchandising center. Thanks to the meat packing plants that opened in Fort Worth in 1903, it reached 73,000 in 1910. El Paso counted 39,000; Austin, the capital, 30,000; and Waco 26,000. The Model T and other autos began arriving, and along with tractors they started to replace mules and horses on the farm. None of the cities had significant suburbs; instead they built street car systems to bring shoppers to the central business district.

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Blacks grew in number but declined from 22% of 1890 population in 1890 to 16% in 1920. They were increasingly segregated in public places, and lost the right to vote. Physical intimidation occurred regularly. Of the 468 lynching victims in the state between 1885, the peak, and the last episode in 1942, 339 were black, 77 white, 53 Hispanic, and 1 Indian. <ref>Charges of murder or attempted murder caused 40% percent of the lynchings; rape or attempted rape accounted for 26%. John R. Ross, "Lynching" in [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/LL/jgl1.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)] </ref> Much improved law enforcement after 1920 meant the violence rapidly died out, but segregation only ended in 1964.

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Blacks grew in number but declined from 22% of 1890 population in 1890 to 16% in 1920. They were increasingly segregated in public places, and lost the right to vote. Physical intimidation occurred regularly. Of the 468 lynching victims in the state between 1885, the peak, and the last episode in 1942, 339 were black, 77 white, 53 Hispanic, and 1 Indian.<ref>Charges of murder or attempted murder caused 40% percent of the lynchings; rape or attempted rape accounted for 26%. John R. Ross, "Lynching" in [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/LL/jgl1.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)]</ref> Much improved law enforcement after 1920 meant the violence rapidly died out, but segregation only ended in 1964.

===Oil===

[[Image:Tx-gusher.jpg|thumb|275px|gusher at Beaumont, c. 1900]]

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===Plan de San Diego: 1915===

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In 1911 an extremely bloody decade-long civil war broke out in Mexico. Hundreds of thousands of refugees fled to Texas, raising the Hispanic population from 72,000 in 1900 to 250,000 in 1920. Revolutionaries and radicals came too; tensions between the U.S. and Mexico escalated to an undeclared war, as American armies invaded parts of Mexico. In 1915 a radical manifesto called the "Plan de San Diego" was issued in San Diego, a village in Duval County in south Texas. It called on Hispanics to reconquer the Southwest and kill all the Anglo men. Rebels assassinated opponents and killed several dozen people in attacks on railroads and ranches before the Texas Rangers smashed the insurrection. Tejanos strongly repudiated the Plan and affirmed their American loyalty by founding the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC). LULAC, headed by professionals, businessmen and modernizers, became the central Tejano organization promoting civic pride and civil rights.<ref> Benjamin H. Johnson, ''Revolution in Texas: how a forgotten rebellion and its bloody suppression turned Mexicans into Americans''. (2003). </ref>

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In 1911 an extremely bloody decade-long civil war broke out in Mexico. Hundreds of thousands of refugees fled to Texas, raising the Hispanic population from 72,000 in 1900 to 250,000 in 1920. Revolutionaries and radicals came too; tensions between the U.S. and Mexico escalated to an undeclared war, as American armies invaded parts of Mexico. In 1915 a radical manifesto called the "Plan de San Diego" was issued in San Diego, a village in Duval County in south Texas. It called on Hispanics to reconquer the Southwest and kill all the Anglo men. Rebels assassinated opponents and killed several dozen people in attacks on railroads and ranches before the Texas Rangers smashed the insurrection. Tejanos strongly repudiated the Plan and affirmed their American loyalty by founding the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC). LULAC, headed by professionals, businessmen and modernizers, became the central Tejano organization promoting civic pride and civil rights.<ref>Benjamin H. Johnson, ''Revolution in Texas: how a forgotten rebellion and its bloody suppression turned Mexicans into Americans''. (2003).</ref>

===Politics===

n 1915 Governor James E. ("Pa") Ferguson took office, but was ousted in 1917 by impeachment for corruption. This began a long controversy over "Fergusonism," during which the ousted governor's wife was twice elected chief executive, in 1924 and 1932.

===Great Depression: 1929-39===

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East Texas was the nation's largest cotton producer; two million Texans depended on cotton for their livelihood during the [[Great Depression, U.S.|hard depression decade]].<ref> See Ben H. Procter, "Great Depression," [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/GG/npg1.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)]</ref> Cotton prices were low, as the world market had collapsed. After 1933 the [[New Deal]] cotton programs ordered less cotton to be produced, in order to cause an even higher increase in prices. The New Deal therefore started by plowing up millions of acres of cotton that had already been planted in 1933. The Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) followed with its voluntary production controls and price-support loans. Cotton growers pressed Congress for mandatory controls, and these were implemented under the Bankhead Cotton Control Act of 1934. When the Supreme Court invalidated the first Agricultural Adjustment Act in 1936, the New Deal replaced it with the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act. This measure was overwhelmed by the 19-million-bale cotton crop of 1937, and after a year of legislative stalemate, Congress passed the second Agricultural Adjustment Act (1938), which incorporated major features of the Ever-Normal Granary Plan. By 1940 cotton prices were high and prosperity had returned for the land owners. However, tenants and sharecroppers, were often denied their share of the benefit payments and, especially after 1935, were forced off the land because of the forced reductions in acreage.<ref> Keith J. Volanto, ''Texas, Cotton, and the New Deal'' (2005)</ref>

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East Texas was the nation's largest cotton producer; two million Texans depended on cotton for their livelihood during the [[Great Depression, U.S.|hard depression decade]].<ref>See Ben H. Procter, "Great Depression," [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/GG/npg1.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2008)]</ref> Cotton prices were low, as the world market had collapsed. After 1933 the [[New Deal]] cotton programs ordered less cotton to be produced, in order to cause an even higher increase in prices. The New Deal therefore started by plowing up millions of acres of cotton that had already been planted in 1933. The Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) followed with its voluntary production controls and price-support loans. Cotton growers pressed Congress for mandatory controls, and these were implemented under the Bankhead Cotton Control Act of 1934. When the Supreme Court invalidated the first Agricultural Adjustment Act in 1936, the New Deal replaced it with the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act. This measure was overwhelmed by the 19-million-bale cotton crop of 1937, and after a year of legislative stalemate, Congress passed the second Agricultural Adjustment Act (1938), which incorporated major features of the Ever-Normal Granary Plan. By 1940 cotton prices were high and prosperity had returned for the land owners. However, tenants and sharecroppers, were often denied their share of the benefit payments and, especially after 1935, were forced off the land because of the forced reductions in acreage.<ref>Keith J. Volanto, ''Texas, Cotton, and the New Deal'' (2005)</ref>

[[File:Tx-cotton.jpg|left|300px|Cotton bales ready to ship from Temple, Texas, 1915]]

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===World War II===

===Civil Rights===

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AFter 1874 white men in the Democratic party controlled the state and minorities had few rights or opportunities. For example, the Texas legislature approved a poll tax in 1902 and later barred blacks from the Democratic primary. The state passed [[Jim Crow]] segregation laws and showed little tolerance for any public roles for African Americans; Mexican Americans were not officially segregated and had the vote. However they had second class status and their votes were controlled by local bosses such as Manuel B. Bravo in Zapata County.<ref> See J. Quezada Gilberto, ''Border Boss: Manuel B. Bravo and Zapata County'' (1999) </ref>streaming into the state. Change occurred, however, when the Supreme Court's Smith v. Allwright decision (1944) voided the state's white Democratic primary.<ref> Charles L. Zelden, ''The Battle for the Black Ballot: Smith v. Allwright and the Defeat of the Texas All-White Primary.'' (2004). 156 pp.</ref>

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AFter 1874 white men in the Democratic party controlled the state and minorities had few rights or opportunities. For example, the Texas legislature approved a poll tax in 1902 and later barred blacks from the Democratic primary. The state passed [[Jim Crow]] segregation laws and showed little tolerance for any public roles for African Americans; Mexican Americans were not officially segregated and had the vote. However they had second class status and their votes were controlled by local bosses such as Manuel B. Bravo in Zapata County.<ref>See J. Quezada Gilberto, ''Border Boss: Manuel B. Bravo and Zapata County'' (1999)</ref> streaming into the state. Change occurred, however, when the Supreme Court's Smith v. Allwright decision (1944) voided the state's white Democratic primary.<ref>Charles L. Zelden, ''The Battle for the Black Ballot: Smith v. Allwright and the Defeat of the Texas All-White Primary.'' (2004). 156 pp.</ref>

Even so blacks had little power and remained segregated until the President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] convinced Congress to pass the [[Civil Rights Act]] of 1965 in memory of [[John F. Kennedy]], who was assassinated in Dallas in 1963. By 1978 the Texas House of Representatives included 14 African Americans and 17 Mexican Americans. In 1980 almost 1,000 Mexican Americans held public office in local government along with 200 blacks. Despite sending prominent liberals to the U.S. Senate after World War II, such as Lyndon B. Johnson and Ralph Yarborough, Texas voters retained their conservative tendencies even during the presidencies of John F. Kennedy and native son Johnson.

===Postwar===

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After 1960 industrialization in Texas was more rapid than in the nation as a whole. Chemical concerns invested heavily in the state, and the electronics and aerospace industries developed tremendously, especially in the Dallas-Fort Worth and Houston areas. In 1964 NASA's Manned Spacecraft Center (now the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center) in Houston was named headquarters for all U.S. manned spacecraft flights. Construction of a ship channel linking Houston, the U.S. petrochemical center, to the Gulf of Mexico and the advent of the space age combined to make the city one of the fastest-growing in the nation. Houston also became a medical and research center of international fame. Dallas continued to lead in finance, marketing, and insurance activities, while such west Texas cities as Lubbock, Amarillo, and Wichita Falls showed marked economic growth. In 1994 the state reached 18 million population and passed New York for second place, behind California; but it ranked first in cattle, with 14 million.<ref> See [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE5DB1538F93AA25756C0A962958260&sec=&spon= Sam Roberts, "A Rank That Rankles: New York Slips to No. 3; Now Texas Is 2d Most Populous State," ''New York Times'' May 19, 1994] </ref>

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After 1960 industrialization in Texas was more rapid than in the nation as a whole. Chemical concerns invested heavily in the state, and the electronics and aerospace industries developed tremendously, especially in the Dallas-Fort Worth and Houston areas. In 1964 NASA's Manned Spacecraft Center (now the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center) in Houston was named headquarters for all U.S. manned spacecraft flights. Construction of a ship channel linking Houston, the U.S. petrochemical center, to the Gulf of Mexico and the advent of the space age combined to make the city one of the fastest-growing in the nation. Houston also became a medical and research center of international fame. Dallas continued to lead in finance, marketing, and insurance activities, while such west Texas cities as Lubbock, Amarillo, and Wichita Falls showed marked economic growth. In 1994 the state reached 18 million population and passed New York for second place, behind California; but it ranked first in cattle, with 14 million.<ref>See [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE5DB1538F93AA25756C0A962958260&sec=&spon= Sam Roberts, "A Rank That Rankles: New York Slips to No. 3; Now Texas Is 2d Most Populous State," ''New York Times'' May 19, 1994]</ref>

===Politics: move to the GOP===

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* Baum, Dale. ''The Shattering of Texas Unionism: Politics in the Lone Star State during the Civil War Era'' (1998).

* Bell, Walter F. "Civil War Texas: A Review of the Historical Literature" ''Southwestern Historical Quarterly'' 2005 109(2): 204-232. Issn: 0038-478x

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* Binkley, William C. "The Activities of the Texan Revolutionary Army after San Jacinto," ''The Journal of Southern History''> Vol. 6, No. 3 (Aug., 1940), pp. ~~331-346~~ [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-4642%28194008%296%3A3%3C331%3ATAOTTR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R in JSTOR]

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* Binkley, William C. "The Activities of the Texan Revolutionary Army after San Jacinto," ''The Journal of Southern History''> Vol. 6, No. 3 (Aug., 1940), pp. 331–346 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-4642%28194008%296%3A3%3C331%3ATAOTTR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R in JSTOR]

* Buenger, Walter L. ''Secession and the Union in Texas.'' , 1984.

* Campbell, Randolph B. ''An Empire for Slavery: The Peculiar Institution in Texas, 1821–1865'' (1989). [http://www.amazon.com/Empire-Slavery-Peculiar-Institution-1821-1865/dp/0807117234/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202129634&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]

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* Jones, C. Allan. ''Texas Roots: Agriculture and Rural Life before the Civil War'' (2005). 264pp

* Jordan, Terry G. ''German Seed in Texas Soil: Immigrant Farmers in Nineteenth Century Texas'' (1966).

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* Jordan, Terry G. "The Imprint of the Upper and Lower South on Mid-Nineteenth-Century Texas," ''Annals of the Association of American Geographers,'' Vol. 57, No. 4 (Dec., 1967), pp. ~~667-690~~ [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0004-5608(196712)57%3A4%3C667%3ATIOTUA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-M in JSTOR]

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* Jordan, Terry G. "The Imprint of the Upper and Lower South on Mid-Nineteenth-Century Texas," ''Annals of the Association of American Geographers,'' Vol. 57, No. 4 (Dec., 1967), pp. 667–690 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0004-5608(196712)57%3A4%3C667%3ATIOTUA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-M in JSTOR]

* Kerby, Robert L. ''Kirby Smith's Confederacy: The Trans-Mississippi South, 1863–1865'' (1972).

* Lack, Paul D. ''The Texas Revolutionary Experience: A Political and Social History, 1835–1836'' Texas A&M University Press, 1992. [http://www.amazon.com/Texas-Revolutionary-Experience-Southwestern-Studies/dp/0890967210/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202129778&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]

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[[~~category~~:Western United States]]

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[[Category:Western United States]]

[[Category:The South]]

[[Category:Texas]]

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