Changes

*'''Space Operations''', the space shuttle, the International Space Station and flight support.

*'''Space Operations''', the space shuttle, the International Space Station and flight support.

Unfortunately, NASA has also lately been distracted by [[anthropogenic global warming theory]], due to the political machinations of alarmists such [[James E. Hansen]] [http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/global_warming_worldbook.html].  George Deutsch, an appointee of [[President George W. Bush]], tried to rein in NASA's turn towards environmental radicalism, but this provoked a reaction from the [[liberal media]] [http://www.theinquirer.net/inquirer/news/1037099/bush-spinner-calls-nasa-site-censorship].

Unfortunately, NASA has also lately been distracted by [[anthropogenic global warming theory]], due to the political machinations of alarmists such [[James E. Hansen]] [https://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/global_warming_worldbook.html].  George Deutsch, an appointee of [[President George W. Bush]], tried to rein in NASA's turn towards environmental radicalism, but this provoked a reaction from the [[liberal media]] [http://www.theinquirer.net/inquirer/news/1037099/bush-spinner-calls-nasa-site-censorship].

[[Image:Apollo 11 Launch.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Apollo 11 launch. The small cloud midway up the rocket is due to the cloud sheet effect while breaking the sound barrier in the flight into space.]]

[[Image:Apollo 11 Launch.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Apollo 11 launch. The small cloud midway up the rocket is due to the cloud sheet effect while breaking the sound barrier in the flight into space.]]

==NASA Manned Missions==

==NASA Manned Missions==

*'''[[Project Mercury]] ''' Initiated in 1958 and completed in 1963, Project Mercury was the United States' first man-in-space program. The objectives of the program, which made six manned flights from 1961 to 1963, were specific:  orbit a manned spacecraft around Earth, investigate man's ability to function in space and recover both man and spacecraft safely.<ref>http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mercury/missions/program-toc.html</ref>

*'''[[Project Mercury]] ''' Initiated in 1958 and completed in 1963, Project Mercury was the United States' first man-in-space program. The objectives of the program, which made six manned flights from 1961 to 1963, were specific:  orbit a manned spacecraft around Earth, investigate man's ability to function in space and recover both man and spacecraft safely.<ref>https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mercury/missions/program-toc.html</ref>

*'''Project Gemini ''' The Gemini Program was a necessary intermediate step between Project Mercury and the Apollo Program and had four objectives: subject astronauts to long duration flights- a requirement for projected later trips to the moon or deeper space; develop effective methods of rendezvous and docking with other orbiting vehicles, and to maneuver the docked vehicles in space; perfect methods of reentry and landing the spacecraft at a pre-selected land-landing point; gain additional information concerning the effects of weightlessness on crew members and to record the physiological reactions of crew members during long duration flights.<ref>http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/gemini/index.html</ref>

*'''Project Gemini ''' The Gemini Program was a necessary intermediate step between Project Mercury and the Apollo Program and had four objectives: subject astronauts to long duration flights- a requirement for projected later trips to the moon or deeper space; develop effective methods of rendezvous and docking with other orbiting vehicles, and to maneuver the docked vehicles in space; perfect methods of reentry and landing the spacecraft at a pre-selected land-landing point; gain additional information concerning the effects of weightlessness on crew members and to record the physiological reactions of crew members during long duration flights.<ref>https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/gemini/index.html</ref>

:The program also drew inspiration from Apollo 1 astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White and Roger Chaffee, who lost their lives in a fire during a launch pad test in 1967.

:The program also drew inspiration from Apollo 1 astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White and Roger Chaffee, who lost their lives in a fire during a launch pad test in 1967.

:Project Apollo concluded with the Apollo/Soyuz mission during July 1975, part of a series of cooperative space flights between the United States and the Soviet Union (Russia) that continues today.  The docking in space of the two spacecraft took place at 2:17 p.m. U.S. Central Daylight Time on 17 July. Two days of joint operations followed. After separation, the Soyuz remained in space for almost two days before landing in the USSR on 21 July. The Apollo spacecraft remained in space for another three days before splashing down near Hawaii on 24 July. The mission was a resounding success for both Americans and Soviets. They achieved their goal of obtaining flight experience for rendezvous and docking of human spacecraft. In addition, they also demonstrated in-flight intervehicular crew transfer, as well as accomplished a series of scientific experiments.<ref>http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/index.html</ref><ref>http://history.nasa.gov/30thastp/overview.html</ref>

:Project Apollo concluded with the Apollo/Soyuz mission during July 1975, part of a series of cooperative space flights between the United States and the Soviet Union (Russia) that continues today.  The docking in space of the two spacecraft took place at 2:17 p.m. U.S. Central Daylight Time on 17 July. Two days of joint operations followed. After separation, the Soyuz remained in space for almost two days before landing in the USSR on 21 July. The Apollo spacecraft remained in space for another three days before splashing down near Hawaii on 24 July. The mission was a resounding success for both Americans and Soviets. They achieved their goal of obtaining flight experience for rendezvous and docking of human spacecraft. In addition, they also demonstrated in-flight intervehicular crew transfer, as well as accomplished a series of scientific experiments.<ref>https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/index.html</ref><ref>http://history.nasa.gov/30thastp/overview.html</ref>

*'''Skylab''' was America's first space station and orbital science and engineering laboratory.  Skylab was launched into Earth orbit by a [[Saturn V]] rocket on May 14, 1973 as part of the Apollo program. Three crews visited the station, with their missions lasting 28, 59 and 84 days.  The mission crews performed a plethora of UV astronomy experiments, eight separate solar experiments and detailed X-ray studies of the Sun.<ref>http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/skylab/index.html</ref> The mission crews performed a plethora of UV astronomy experiments, eight separate solar experiments and detailed X-ray studies of the Sun.  Skylab served as the greatest solar observatory of its time, a microgravity lab, a medical lab, an Earth-observing facility, and, most importantly, a home away from home for its residents. The program also led to new technologies. Special showers, toilets, sleeping bags, exercise equipment and kitchen facilities were designed to function in microgravity.<ref>http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/skylab/index.html</ref><ref>http://www.nasa.gov/missions/shuttle/f_skylab1.html</ref>

*'''Skylab''' was America's first space station and orbital science and engineering laboratory.  Skylab was launched into Earth orbit by a [[Saturn V]] rocket on May 14, 1973 as part of the Apollo program. Three crews visited the station, with their missions lasting 28, 59 and 84 days.  The mission crews performed a plethora of UV astronomy experiments, eight separate solar experiments and detailed X-ray studies of the Sun.<ref>https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/skylab/index.html</ref> The mission crews performed a plethora of UV astronomy experiments, eight separate solar experiments and detailed X-ray studies of the Sun.  Skylab served as the greatest solar observatory of its time, a microgravity lab, a medical lab, an Earth-observing facility, and, most importantly, a home away from home for its residents. The program also led to new technologies. Special showers, toilets, sleeping bags, exercise equipment and kitchen facilities were designed to function in microgravity.<ref>https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/skylab/index.html</ref><ref>https://www.nasa.gov/missions/shuttle/f_skylab1.html</ref>

:The Shuttle has the most reliable launch record of any rocket now in operation. Since 1981, it has boosted more than 1.36 million kilograms (3 million pounds) of cargo into orbit. More than than 600 crew members have flown on its missions. Although it has been in operation for almost 20 years, the Shuttle has continually evolved and is significantly different today than when it first was launched. NASA has made literally thousands of major and minor modifications to the original design that have made it safer, more reliable and more capable today than ever before. After 135 missions, the Space Shuttle flew its last flight on July 8, 2011.  

:The Shuttle has the most reliable launch record of any rocket now in operation. Since 1981, it has boosted more than 1.36 million kilograms (3 million pounds) of cargo into orbit. More than than 600 crew members have flown on its missions. Although it has been in operation for almost 20 years, the Shuttle has continually evolved and is significantly different today than when it first was launched. NASA has made literally thousands of major and minor modifications to the original design that have made it safer, more reliable and more capable today than ever before. After 135 missions, the Space Shuttle flew its last flight on July 8, 2011.  

:In 1992, the U.S. and the new Russian Federation renewed the 1987 space cooperation agreement and issued a "Joint Statement on Cooperation in Space." Subsequent additions to the agreement outline the development of the NASA-Mir program.  From February 1994 to June 1998, space shuttles made 11 flights to the Russian space station Mir, and American astronauts spent seven residencies onboard Mir. Space shuttles also conducted crew exchanges and delivered supplies and equipment.<ref>http://www.nasa.gov/returntoflight/system/system_STS.html</ref><ref>http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle-mir/index.html</ref>

:In 1992, the U.S. and the new Russian Federation renewed the 1987 space cooperation agreement and issued a "Joint Statement on Cooperation in Space." Subsequent additions to the agreement outline the development of the NASA-Mir program.  From February 1994 to June 1998, space shuttles made 11 flights to the Russian space station Mir, and American astronauts spent seven residencies onboard Mir. Space shuttles also conducted crew exchanges and delivered supplies and equipment.<ref>https://www.nasa.gov/returntoflight/system/system_STS.html</ref><ref>https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle-mir/index.html</ref>

*The '''International Space Station''' is a working laboratory orbiting 240 miles (390 kilometers) above the Earth and is home to an international crew.  It is the most complex scientific and technological endeavor ever undertaken, involving five space agencies representing 16 nations. Once completed, this new research outpost in space will include contributions from the U.S., Canada, Japan, Russia, Brazil, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. As a research outpost, the station is a test bed for future technologies and a research laboratory for new, advanced industrial materials, communications technology, medical research and much more. On-orbit assembly began in 1998 with the launch of Zarya, and today the station provides crewmembers with 15,000 cubic feet of habitable volume – more room than a conventional three-bedroom house – and weighs 404,000 pounds.  

*The '''International Space Station''' is a working laboratory orbiting 240 miles (390 kilometers) above the Earth and is home to an international crew.  It is the most complex scientific and technological endeavor ever undertaken, involving five space agencies representing 16 nations. Once completed, this new research outpost in space will include contributions from the U.S., Canada, Japan, Russia, Brazil, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. As a research outpost, the station is a test bed for future technologies and a research laboratory for new, advanced industrial materials, communications technology, medical research and much more. On-orbit assembly began in 1998 with the launch of Zarya, and today the station provides crewmembers with 15,000 cubic feet of habitable volume – more room than a conventional three-bedroom house – and weighs 404,000 pounds.  

:The station now includes the Russian-built Zarya Module and the Zvezda Service Module, which contain the station’s living quarters and life-support systems; the U.S.-built Unity Connecting Module, providing docking ports for several station components; the U.S.-built Destiny Laboratory, which expands the station’s scientific capabilities with experiment compartments that allow nearly continuous scientific research and provide additional life support and robotic capabilities; the U.S.-built Quest Airlock, a doorway to space that supports station-based spacewalks; the Canadian-built Canadarm2, a new-generation robotic arm that gives the station a movable space crane; the Russian-built Pirs docking compartment, which adds additional spacewalking and docking capabilities to the station; and truss segments, which serve as the framework for additional station segments. Japanese and European research laboratories are ready for delivery to expand the station’s research capabilities even more.<ref>http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/factsheets/index.html</ref>

:The station now includes the Russian-built Zarya Module and the Zvezda Service Module, which contain the station’s living quarters and life-support systems; the U.S.-built Unity Connecting Module, providing docking ports for several station components; the U.S.-built Destiny Laboratory, which expands the station’s scientific capabilities with experiment compartments that allow nearly continuous scientific research and provide additional life support and robotic capabilities; the U.S.-built Quest Airlock, a doorway to space that supports station-based spacewalks; the Canadian-built Canadarm2, a new-generation robotic arm that gives the station a movable space crane; the Russian-built Pirs docking compartment, which adds additional spacewalking and docking capabilities to the station; and truss segments, which serve as the framework for additional station segments. Japanese and European research laboratories are ready for delivery to expand the station’s research capabilities even more.<ref>http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/factsheets/index.html</ref>

*NASA had planned to continue human space flight with '''Project Constellation''', which consists of the Orion spacecraft (similar to the Project Apollo Command Module, but larger and with up to date flight systems) and the Ares I, a launch vehicle.  The Ares is similar to the solid fuel rocket from the current Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster (SRB), but more powerful, and has a second stage.  The first launch was hoped for 2011 and the first human launch in 2014.<ref>http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/orion/index.html</ref>  Due to budget cuts, however, funding was removed for the program in the 2011 federal budget, and the current status of the project is unknown.

*NASA had planned to continue human space flight with '''Project Constellation''', which consists of the Orion spacecraft (similar to the Project Apollo Command Module, but larger and with up to date flight systems) and the Ares I, a launch vehicle.  The Ares is similar to the solid fuel rocket from the current Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster (SRB), but more powerful, and has a second stage.  The first launch was hoped for 2011 and the first human launch in 2014.<ref>https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/orion/index.html</ref>  Due to budget cuts, however, funding was removed for the program in the 2011 federal budget, and the current status of the project is unknown.

==NASA Unmanned Missions==

==NASA Unmanned Missions==

*'''Explorer 1''' was the first satellite launched by the United States when it was sent into space on January 31, 1958. Following the launch of the Soviet Union's Sputnik 1 on October 4, 1957, the U.S. Army Ballistic Missile Agency was directed to launch a satellite using its Jupiter C rocket developed under the direction of Dr. Wernher von Braun. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory received the assignment to design, build and operate the artificial satellite that would serve as the rocket's payload. JPL completed this job in less than three months.  

*'''Explorer 1''' was the first satellite launched by the United States when it was sent into space on January 31, 1958. Following the launch of the Soviet Union's Sputnik 1 on October 4, 1957, the U.S. Army Ballistic Missile Agency was directed to launch a satellite using its Jupiter C rocket developed under the direction of Dr. Wernher von Braun. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory received the assignment to design, build and operate the artificial satellite that would serve as the rocket's payload. JPL completed this job in less than three months.  

:The primary science instrument on Explorer 1 was a [[cosmic ray]] detector designed to measure the radiation environment in Earth orbit. Once in space this experiment, provided by Dr. James Van Allen of the University of Iowa, revealed a much lower cosmic ray count than expected.  The existence of these radiation belts was confirmed by another U.S. satellite launched two months later, and they became known as the Van Allen Belts in honor of their discoverer.<ref>http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/explorer/explorer-overview.html</ref>

:The primary science instrument on Explorer 1 was a [[cosmic ray]] detector designed to measure the radiation environment in Earth orbit. Once in space this experiment, provided by Dr. James Van Allen of the University of Iowa, revealed a much lower cosmic ray count than expected.  The existence of these radiation belts was confirmed by another U.S. satellite launched two months later, and they became known as the Van Allen Belts in honor of their discoverer.<ref>https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/explorer/explorer-overview.html</ref>

:Pioneer Venus consisted of two spacecraft: the Orbiter and the Multiprobe. The Orbiter carried an assortment of instruments for investigating plasma in upper Venusian atmosphere, observing reflected sunlight from the cloud layers at a variety of wavelengths, in addition to a surface radar mapper, and was launched on the May 20, 1978. It reached orbit around Venus on Dec. 4, 1978. Although originally intended to operate for one Venusian year, most of the Orbiter's instruments were still operating when the spacecraft entered the atmosphere on Oct. 8, 1992.

:Pioneer Venus consisted of two spacecraft: the Orbiter and the Multiprobe. The Orbiter carried an assortment of instruments for investigating plasma in upper Venusian atmosphere, observing reflected sunlight from the cloud layers at a variety of wavelengths, in addition to a surface radar mapper, and was launched on the May 20, 1978. It reached orbit around Venus on Dec. 4, 1978. Although originally intended to operate for one Venusian year, most of the Orbiter's instruments were still operating when the spacecraft entered the atmosphere on Oct. 8, 1992.

:The Pioneer Venus Multiprobe, which was launched on Aug. 8, 1978 and reached Venus on Dec. 9, 1978, was made of 5 separate probes: the probe transporter (referred to as the Bus), a large atmospheric entry probe (called Sounder), and three small probes. The Sounder released from the Bus on Nov. 15, 1978. The three smaller probes released on Nov. 19, 1978. The probes sent data to Earth as they descended toward the surface.<ref>http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/pioneer-venus/index.html</ref>

:The Pioneer Venus Multiprobe, which was launched on Aug. 8, 1978 and reached Venus on Dec. 9, 1978, was made of 5 separate probes: the probe transporter (referred to as the Bus), a large atmospheric entry probe (called Sounder), and three small probes. The Sounder released from the Bus on Nov. 15, 1978. The three smaller probes released on Nov. 19, 1978. The probes sent data to Earth as they descended toward the surface.<ref>https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/pioneer-venus/index.html</ref>