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'''Jiang Jieshi''' (Chiang Kai-shek) (1887-1975) was the autocratic military leader of the [[Guomindang]] from 1925 following the death of [[Sun Yixian]] (Sun Yat-sen), and from 1928 until his death in 1975 was the paramount leader and (with brief interruptions) President of the [[Republic of China]].
=== Early life ===
Jiang was born in the port city of [[Ningbo]] ([[Wade-Giles]]: Ningpo) in [[Zhejiang]] province in 1887, and like many educated and patriotically-minded youths in the dying days of the [[Qing]] dynasty chose to follow a military career. He studied at a military academy in [[Japan]] between 1908 and 1910, where Jiang joined the Tongmenghui (United League) - which was shortly to merge with other revolutionary groups to become the [[Guomindang]] or Nationalist Party. At the time of the 1911 revolution Jiang was based in [[Shanghai]] and at that time became involved with the local secret societies and gangs who were to aid him later in his career. During the 'Second Revolution' of 1913 (against the reactionary rule of [[Yuan Shikai]]) Jiang led an attack on the Jiangnan Arsenal in Shanghai but the bungled operation was a disastrous failure and Jiang was forced to flee. He attached himself to the entourage of the Guomindang leader [[Sun Yat-sen]] and to the ramshackle Guomindang government which Sun set up in the southern metropolis of [[Guangzhou]] (Canton). When Sun concluded an alliance with the [[Comintern]] in 1923, brokered by the Soviet agent Adolph Joffe (the 'Sun-Joffe Agreement'), Jiang Jieshi was appointed commandant of the Whampoa Military Academy at Guangzhou, established with Soviet aid and with Soviet and other foreign communist advisers. The purpose of the Academy was to train a Nationalist army capable of uniting China under Guomindang rule.
=== Northern Expedition ===
As commandant of the Whampoa Military Academy, Jiang had to work closely with Soviet advisors and [[Chinese Communist Party]] officials (the Guomindang and the CCP had formed a 'united front' as a result of the Sun-Joffe Agreement, the CCP existing as 'bloc within' the Guomindang). [[Zhou Enlai]] (Wade-Giles: Chou En-lai) was a senior political commissar at the academy. However, Jiang was very suspicious of his Communist allies. Following the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925, Jiang became the most powerful individual Guomindang leader, and on March 11 1926 launched a limited purge of communists in Guangzhou (the so-called 'Canton Coup'), as a result of which all his Soviet advisors were expelled. However, he did not dissolve the united front, and the CCP, under orders from Moscow, also continued to maintain the status quo.
On July 1, 1926, Jiang launched the Northern Expedition. Guomindang armies marched north from Guangzhou in a bid to free China from the warring warlord factions which had been the sole fluctuating authority in the country since the death of [[Yuan Shikai]] in 1916, and to unify the country under Guomindang rule. However, Jiang was aided by the 'Guangxi Clique' of nationally-minded warlords; and the northern progress of the expedition was aided by carefully-timed popular uprisings planned by the CCP against local warlords. By September 1926 the Guomindang had captured [[Wuhan]] on the middle [[Yangtse]], and a Guomindang government was established there. Instead of continuing to press north, Jiang turned east and in March 1927 occupied [[Nanjing]], which was to become the Nationalist's capital city, and [[Shanghai]].
On April 12, 1927 Jiang again turned on the communists in the 'Shanghai Coup'. Aided by the police of the International Settlement and the French Concession in the city, and by gunmen of the influential 'Green Gang' criminal network, Jiang's troops and police rounded up and executed hundred of communists and trade unionists; in the weeks to come thousands more communists and other left-wingers were killed. The Guomindang government at Wuhan, led by Sun Yat-sen's widow [[Song Qingling]] and by [[Wang Jingwei]] initially protested at Jiang's actions but by the autumn of 1927 they, too, dissolved the united front. Jiang was now the undisputed leader of the Guomindang and the most powerful man in China. In 1928 two northern warlords, [[Yan Xishan]] and [[Feng Yuxiang]], pledged their loyalty to him, and Yan's troops drove the last major warlord opponent, [[Zhang Zuolin]], out of [[Beijing]]. The Northern Expedition was over, and Jiang was master of China.
=== President of the Republic of China ===
The period of the 'Nanjing Republic' (1928-37) was too short and too troubled to enable a full assessment of what established Guomindang rule might have brought China. Jiang was faced by a series of serious internal and external problems:
* Although President of China, his direct rule only extended to the lower Yangtse provinces; the rest of China continued to be ruled by warlords expressing greater or lesser degrees of loyalty to Jiang. In 1929-30 his erstwhile allies Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan rebelled against him and his rule was saved by the intervention of Zhang Xueliang.
* The communists, defeated in April 1927 and in a number of ill-planned urban uprisings later that year, had regrouped in the countryside and established a number of 'base areas' (most notably that of [[Mao Zedong]] in southern [[Jiangxi]] province). These bases were expanding, and efforts to eliminate the Jiangxi Soviet in a series of 'encirclement campaigns' in the early 1930s had failed. The fifth encirclement campaign of 1933-34 succeeded in destroying the Jiangxi base, but not the communist Red Army, which broke thorough government lines and embarked on the [[Long March]].
* China was increasingly threatened by Japanese expansionism in this period. Jiang had backed down from confrontation with Japan during the 1928 [[Jinan]] incident; he forbade resistance to Japan during the Japanese occupation of [[Manchuria]] in 1931. In 1932 the armed resistance in [[Shanghai]] to Japanese aggression took place against his orders; in 1933 he acquiesced in the Japanese occupation of [[Rehe]]. While Jiang expressed the view that 'communism was a disease of the internal organs, the Japanese a disease of the skin', and that to build a strong China it was necessary to defeat communism first, to an increasing number of Chinese his attitude appeared capitulationist and unpatriotic.
* Jiang became increasingly distanced from the Guomindang and increasingly autocratic. He became reliant on a small clique of wealthy supporters, particularly the Song (Soong)family, into which he had married (his wife, Song Meiling (1897-2003), was the sister of Sun Yat-sen's leftist widow, Song Qingling (1892-1981)). One brother in law, T.V. Soong, was his Finance Minister. In 1932 Jiang founded a quasi-fascistic 'Blue Shirts' organisation, and in 1934 Jiang launched the 'New Life Movement', emulating fascist developments in Italy and Germany. this sought to make China strong by stressing traditional virtues, banning spitting, and so on; in the face of Japanese aggression and rampant corruption it seemed a ludicrous distraction and was widely derided where it was not ignored.
=== The Xi'an Incident and the Second United Front ===
=== The Sino-Japanese War ===
List of all battles fought in the Sino-Japanese War.
• Mukden September 1931
• Invasion of Manchuria September 1931
o Jiangqiao Campaign October 1931
Resistance at Nenjiang Bridge November 1931
o Chinchow Operation December 1931
o Defense of Harbin January 1932
• Shanghai (1932) January 1932
• Pacification of Manchukuo March 1932
o Manchukuoan Anti Bandit Operations March 1932
• Operation Nekka January 1933
o Great Wall January 1933
o Battle of Rehe February 1933
• Actions in Inner Mongolia(1933-36)
o Suiyuan October 1936
• Battle of Lugou Bridge (Marco Polo Bridge Incident) July 1937
• Beiping-Tianjin July 1937
• Chahar August 1937
• Battle of Shanghai August 1937
• Beiping–Hankou Railway Operation August 1937
• Tianjin–Pukou Railway Operation August 1937
• Taiyuan September 1937
o Battle of Pingxingguan September 1937
o Battle of Xinkou September 1937
• Battle of Nanjing December 1937
• Battle of Xuzhou December 1937
o Battle of Taierzhuang March 1938
• Northern and Eastern Honan 1938 January 1938
o Battle of Lanfeng May 1938
• Amoy Operation May 1938
• Battle of Wuhan June 1938
• Canton Operation October 1938
• Hainan Island Operation February 1939
• Battle of Nanchang March 1939
o Battle of Xiushui River March 1939
• Battle of Suixian-Zaoyang May 1939
• Swatow Operation June 1939
• Battle of Changsha (1939) September 1939
• Battle of South Guangxi November 1939
o Battle of Kunlun Pass December 1939
• 1939-40 Winter Offensive November 1939
o Battle of Wuyuan March 1940
• Battle of Zaoyang-Yichang May 1940
• Hundred Regiments Offensive August 1940
• Indochina Expedition September 1940
• Central Hopei Operation November 1940
• Battle of South Henan January 1941
• Western Hopei Operation March 1941
• Battle of Shanggao March 1941
• Battle of South Shanxi May 1941
• Battle of Changsha (1941) September 1941
• Battle of Changsha (1942) January 1942
• Battle of Yunnan-Burma Road March 1942
o Battle of Yenangyaung
• Battle of Zhejiang-Jiangxi April 1942
• Battle of West Hubei May 1943
• Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan October 1943
• Battle of Changde November 1943
• Battle of Henan-Hunan-Guangxi April 1944
• Battle of Changsha (1944) August 1944
• Battle of Guilin-Liuzhou August 1944
• Battle of West Hunan April - June, 1945
• Operation August Storm August – September, 1945
[edit] Japanese invasion and planned operations
• Sczechwan Invasion
• Kuolichi-Taierhchuang Operation
• CHE-KIANG Operation
• Peiping-Hankow Operation
• Siang-Kwei Operation
• Canton-Hankow Operation
• Kiangsi-Fukien Operation
• Kwanchow-Wan Occupation
• Laohokow Operation
• Chichiang Operation
• Disembarc in Tsingtao
List of Japanese political and military incidents
[edit] Battles in Burma Campaign
• Battle of Oktwin Mar. 20 - 23, 1942
• Battle of Toungoo Mar. 24-28, 1942
• Battle of Yedahe Apr. 5-8, 1942
• Battle of Szuwa River Apr. 10-16, 1942
• Battle of Pyinmana April 17-20, 1942
• Battle of Yenangyaung Apr. 17-19 1942
• Battle of Mawache and Yato Early April 1942
• Battle of Bawlake April 17,1942
• Battle of Hopong - Taunggyi April 20-24, 1942
• Battle of Loliem April 25, 1942
• Battle of Lashio (1942) April 29, 1942
• Battle of Hsenwe May 1, 1942
• Battle of Salween River May 6-31, 1942
• Battle of Hsipaw-Mogok Highway May 23, 1942
• Battle of Yupang Oct. - Dec. 1943
• Battle of Lashio Jan 1944
• Battle of Maingkwan Feb.- 5 Mar. 1944
• Battle of Mogaung Mar. 1944
• Battle of Myitkyina Apr. - Aug. 1944
• Battle of Mongyu Dec.1944 - Jan. 1945
• Battle of Lashio (1945) Mar. 1945
• Battle of Hsipaw Mar.1945
=== The Civil War and Jiang's flight to Taiwan ===
He ostensibly converted to [[Christianity]] (specifically, to [[Methodism]]) on his marriage to [[Song Meiling]] and was a fierce opponent of [[Communism]].
When the [[Japan]]ese invaded [[Manchuria]] in 1931, Jiang gave precedence to defeating the internal threat posed by the Chinese communists over resisting the Japanese invasion. However the communists managed to evade final destruction, by fleeing from loyal forces on the [[Long March]] of 1934. Subsequent to [[World War II]], the resurgence of Communism under [[Mao Zedong]] resulted in civil war, and Jiang had to depart the Chinese mainland for the island of [[Taiwan]] in 1949, where he resumed his position as president, albeit of a massively reduced territory. The new government was a [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] and repressive [[dictatorship]], but at least it was [[right-wing]] and friendly to the [[US]].
== Poetry ==
Jiang was also known for his poetry. He wrote a poem expressing exultation after his victory over the Communist Party, in 1928:
The yellow crane has long since gone away,<br>
All that here remains is Yellow Crane Tower.<br>
The yellow crane once gone does not return,<br>
White clouds drift slowly for a thousand years.
==References==
<references/>
[[Category:Heads of state]]
[[Category:China]]
=== Early life ===
Jiang was born in the port city of [[Ningbo]] ([[Wade-Giles]]: Ningpo) in [[Zhejiang]] province in 1887, and like many educated and patriotically-minded youths in the dying days of the [[Qing]] dynasty chose to follow a military career. He studied at a military academy in [[Japan]] between 1908 and 1910, where Jiang joined the Tongmenghui (United League) - which was shortly to merge with other revolutionary groups to become the [[Guomindang]] or Nationalist Party. At the time of the 1911 revolution Jiang was based in [[Shanghai]] and at that time became involved with the local secret societies and gangs who were to aid him later in his career. During the 'Second Revolution' of 1913 (against the reactionary rule of [[Yuan Shikai]]) Jiang led an attack on the Jiangnan Arsenal in Shanghai but the bungled operation was a disastrous failure and Jiang was forced to flee. He attached himself to the entourage of the Guomindang leader [[Sun Yat-sen]] and to the ramshackle Guomindang government which Sun set up in the southern metropolis of [[Guangzhou]] (Canton). When Sun concluded an alliance with the [[Comintern]] in 1923, brokered by the Soviet agent Adolph Joffe (the 'Sun-Joffe Agreement'), Jiang Jieshi was appointed commandant of the Whampoa Military Academy at Guangzhou, established with Soviet aid and with Soviet and other foreign communist advisers. The purpose of the Academy was to train a Nationalist army capable of uniting China under Guomindang rule.
=== Northern Expedition ===
As commandant of the Whampoa Military Academy, Jiang had to work closely with Soviet advisors and [[Chinese Communist Party]] officials (the Guomindang and the CCP had formed a 'united front' as a result of the Sun-Joffe Agreement, the CCP existing as 'bloc within' the Guomindang). [[Zhou Enlai]] (Wade-Giles: Chou En-lai) was a senior political commissar at the academy. However, Jiang was very suspicious of his Communist allies. Following the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1925, Jiang became the most powerful individual Guomindang leader, and on March 11 1926 launched a limited purge of communists in Guangzhou (the so-called 'Canton Coup'), as a result of which all his Soviet advisors were expelled. However, he did not dissolve the united front, and the CCP, under orders from Moscow, also continued to maintain the status quo.
On July 1, 1926, Jiang launched the Northern Expedition. Guomindang armies marched north from Guangzhou in a bid to free China from the warring warlord factions which had been the sole fluctuating authority in the country since the death of [[Yuan Shikai]] in 1916, and to unify the country under Guomindang rule. However, Jiang was aided by the 'Guangxi Clique' of nationally-minded warlords; and the northern progress of the expedition was aided by carefully-timed popular uprisings planned by the CCP against local warlords. By September 1926 the Guomindang had captured [[Wuhan]] on the middle [[Yangtse]], and a Guomindang government was established there. Instead of continuing to press north, Jiang turned east and in March 1927 occupied [[Nanjing]], which was to become the Nationalist's capital city, and [[Shanghai]].
On April 12, 1927 Jiang again turned on the communists in the 'Shanghai Coup'. Aided by the police of the International Settlement and the French Concession in the city, and by gunmen of the influential 'Green Gang' criminal network, Jiang's troops and police rounded up and executed hundred of communists and trade unionists; in the weeks to come thousands more communists and other left-wingers were killed. The Guomindang government at Wuhan, led by Sun Yat-sen's widow [[Song Qingling]] and by [[Wang Jingwei]] initially protested at Jiang's actions but by the autumn of 1927 they, too, dissolved the united front. Jiang was now the undisputed leader of the Guomindang and the most powerful man in China. In 1928 two northern warlords, [[Yan Xishan]] and [[Feng Yuxiang]], pledged their loyalty to him, and Yan's troops drove the last major warlord opponent, [[Zhang Zuolin]], out of [[Beijing]]. The Northern Expedition was over, and Jiang was master of China.
=== President of the Republic of China ===
The period of the 'Nanjing Republic' (1928-37) was too short and too troubled to enable a full assessment of what established Guomindang rule might have brought China. Jiang was faced by a series of serious internal and external problems:
* Although President of China, his direct rule only extended to the lower Yangtse provinces; the rest of China continued to be ruled by warlords expressing greater or lesser degrees of loyalty to Jiang. In 1929-30 his erstwhile allies Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan rebelled against him and his rule was saved by the intervention of Zhang Xueliang.
* The communists, defeated in April 1927 and in a number of ill-planned urban uprisings later that year, had regrouped in the countryside and established a number of 'base areas' (most notably that of [[Mao Zedong]] in southern [[Jiangxi]] province). These bases were expanding, and efforts to eliminate the Jiangxi Soviet in a series of 'encirclement campaigns' in the early 1930s had failed. The fifth encirclement campaign of 1933-34 succeeded in destroying the Jiangxi base, but not the communist Red Army, which broke thorough government lines and embarked on the [[Long March]].
* China was increasingly threatened by Japanese expansionism in this period. Jiang had backed down from confrontation with Japan during the 1928 [[Jinan]] incident; he forbade resistance to Japan during the Japanese occupation of [[Manchuria]] in 1931. In 1932 the armed resistance in [[Shanghai]] to Japanese aggression took place against his orders; in 1933 he acquiesced in the Japanese occupation of [[Rehe]]. While Jiang expressed the view that 'communism was a disease of the internal organs, the Japanese a disease of the skin', and that to build a strong China it was necessary to defeat communism first, to an increasing number of Chinese his attitude appeared capitulationist and unpatriotic.
* Jiang became increasingly distanced from the Guomindang and increasingly autocratic. He became reliant on a small clique of wealthy supporters, particularly the Song (Soong)family, into which he had married (his wife, Song Meiling (1897-2003), was the sister of Sun Yat-sen's leftist widow, Song Qingling (1892-1981)). One brother in law, T.V. Soong, was his Finance Minister. In 1932 Jiang founded a quasi-fascistic 'Blue Shirts' organisation, and in 1934 Jiang launched the 'New Life Movement', emulating fascist developments in Italy and Germany. this sought to make China strong by stressing traditional virtues, banning spitting, and so on; in the face of Japanese aggression and rampant corruption it seemed a ludicrous distraction and was widely derided where it was not ignored.
=== The Xi'an Incident and the Second United Front ===
=== The Sino-Japanese War ===
List of all battles fought in the Sino-Japanese War.
• Mukden September 1931
• Invasion of Manchuria September 1931
o Jiangqiao Campaign October 1931
Resistance at Nenjiang Bridge November 1931
o Chinchow Operation December 1931
o Defense of Harbin January 1932
• Shanghai (1932) January 1932
• Pacification of Manchukuo March 1932
o Manchukuoan Anti Bandit Operations March 1932
• Operation Nekka January 1933
o Great Wall January 1933
o Battle of Rehe February 1933
• Actions in Inner Mongolia(1933-36)
o Suiyuan October 1936
• Battle of Lugou Bridge (Marco Polo Bridge Incident) July 1937
• Beiping-Tianjin July 1937
• Chahar August 1937
• Battle of Shanghai August 1937
• Beiping–Hankou Railway Operation August 1937
• Tianjin–Pukou Railway Operation August 1937
• Taiyuan September 1937
o Battle of Pingxingguan September 1937
o Battle of Xinkou September 1937
• Battle of Nanjing December 1937
• Battle of Xuzhou December 1937
o Battle of Taierzhuang March 1938
• Northern and Eastern Honan 1938 January 1938
o Battle of Lanfeng May 1938
• Amoy Operation May 1938
• Battle of Wuhan June 1938
• Canton Operation October 1938
• Hainan Island Operation February 1939
• Battle of Nanchang March 1939
o Battle of Xiushui River March 1939
• Battle of Suixian-Zaoyang May 1939
• Swatow Operation June 1939
• Battle of Changsha (1939) September 1939
• Battle of South Guangxi November 1939
o Battle of Kunlun Pass December 1939
• 1939-40 Winter Offensive November 1939
o Battle of Wuyuan March 1940
• Battle of Zaoyang-Yichang May 1940
• Hundred Regiments Offensive August 1940
• Indochina Expedition September 1940
• Central Hopei Operation November 1940
• Battle of South Henan January 1941
• Western Hopei Operation March 1941
• Battle of Shanggao March 1941
• Battle of South Shanxi May 1941
• Battle of Changsha (1941) September 1941
• Battle of Changsha (1942) January 1942
• Battle of Yunnan-Burma Road March 1942
o Battle of Yenangyaung
• Battle of Zhejiang-Jiangxi April 1942
• Battle of West Hubei May 1943
• Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan October 1943
• Battle of Changde November 1943
• Battle of Henan-Hunan-Guangxi April 1944
• Battle of Changsha (1944) August 1944
• Battle of Guilin-Liuzhou August 1944
• Battle of West Hunan April - June, 1945
• Operation August Storm August – September, 1945
[edit] Japanese invasion and planned operations
• Sczechwan Invasion
• Kuolichi-Taierhchuang Operation
• CHE-KIANG Operation
• Peiping-Hankow Operation
• Siang-Kwei Operation
• Canton-Hankow Operation
• Kiangsi-Fukien Operation
• Kwanchow-Wan Occupation
• Laohokow Operation
• Chichiang Operation
• Disembarc in Tsingtao
List of Japanese political and military incidents
[edit] Battles in Burma Campaign
• Battle of Oktwin Mar. 20 - 23, 1942
• Battle of Toungoo Mar. 24-28, 1942
• Battle of Yedahe Apr. 5-8, 1942
• Battle of Szuwa River Apr. 10-16, 1942
• Battle of Pyinmana April 17-20, 1942
• Battle of Yenangyaung Apr. 17-19 1942
• Battle of Mawache and Yato Early April 1942
• Battle of Bawlake April 17,1942
• Battle of Hopong - Taunggyi April 20-24, 1942
• Battle of Loliem April 25, 1942
• Battle of Lashio (1942) April 29, 1942
• Battle of Hsenwe May 1, 1942
• Battle of Salween River May 6-31, 1942
• Battle of Hsipaw-Mogok Highway May 23, 1942
• Battle of Yupang Oct. - Dec. 1943
• Battle of Lashio Jan 1944
• Battle of Maingkwan Feb.- 5 Mar. 1944
• Battle of Mogaung Mar. 1944
• Battle of Myitkyina Apr. - Aug. 1944
• Battle of Mongyu Dec.1944 - Jan. 1945
• Battle of Lashio (1945) Mar. 1945
• Battle of Hsipaw Mar.1945
=== The Civil War and Jiang's flight to Taiwan ===
He ostensibly converted to [[Christianity]] (specifically, to [[Methodism]]) on his marriage to [[Song Meiling]] and was a fierce opponent of [[Communism]].
When the [[Japan]]ese invaded [[Manchuria]] in 1931, Jiang gave precedence to defeating the internal threat posed by the Chinese communists over resisting the Japanese invasion. However the communists managed to evade final destruction, by fleeing from loyal forces on the [[Long March]] of 1934. Subsequent to [[World War II]], the resurgence of Communism under [[Mao Zedong]] resulted in civil war, and Jiang had to depart the Chinese mainland for the island of [[Taiwan]] in 1949, where he resumed his position as president, albeit of a massively reduced territory. The new government was a [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] and repressive [[dictatorship]], but at least it was [[right-wing]] and friendly to the [[US]].
== Poetry ==
Jiang was also known for his poetry. He wrote a poem expressing exultation after his victory over the Communist Party, in 1928:
The yellow crane has long since gone away,<br>
All that here remains is Yellow Crane Tower.<br>
The yellow crane once gone does not return,<br>
White clouds drift slowly for a thousand years.
==References==
<references/>
[[Category:Heads of state]]
[[Category:China]]