Changes

==Background==

==Background==

Robinson was born in Lonoke in central Arkansas, to the former Matilda Jane Swaim  (1832-1899), a Tennessee native, and James Madison Robinson (1816-1892), a [[physician]], [[farmer]], and  lay preacher originally from New York. Young Robinson chopped [[cotton]] and worked in his father's [[apple]] orchard. He taught first grade for two years before he spent a year studying at the [[University of Arkansas]] in Fayetteville but dropped out upon his father's death. Back in Lonoke, he studied law with Thomas Clark Trimble, III (1878-1965), later a federal judge. He also attended the [[University of Virginia]] in Charlottesville, after which he was admitted to the bar. He married the former Ewilda Gertrude "Billie" Miller; the couple had no children.<ref name=findagrave>{{cite web|url=https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/9824/joseph-taylor-robinson|title=Joseph Taylor Robinson|publisher=findagrave.com|accessdate=February 24, 2021}}</ref><ref name=ency/>

Robinson was born in Lonoke in central Arkansas, to the former Matilda Jane Swaim  (1832–1899), a Tennessee native, and James Madison Robinson (1816–1892), a [[physician]], [[farmer]], and  lay preacher originally from New York. Young Robinson chopped [[cotton]] and worked in his father's [[apple]] orchard. He taught first grade for two years before he spent a year studying at the [[University of Arkansas]] in Fayetteville but dropped out upon his father's death. Back in Lonoke, he studied law with Thomas Clark Trimble, III (1878–1965), later a federal judge. He also attended the [[University of Virginia]] in Charlottesville, after which he was admitted to the bar. He married the former Ewilda Gertrude "Billie" Miller; the couple had no children.<ref name=findagrave>{{cite web|url=https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/9824/joseph-taylor-robinson|title=Joseph Taylor Robinson|publisher=findagrave.com|accessdate=February 24, 2021}}</ref><ref name=ency/>

==Career==

==Career==

In 1894, at the age of twenty-two, Robinson was elected to the Arkansas legislature and served one term. In 1902, he was elected to the [[United States House of Representatives]] for the since abolished 6th congressional district and was re-elected to four subsequent terms ending in 1913. In 1912, Robinson was elected governor, in which capacity over a few weeks he advocated funding to complete the new state capitol building in [[Little Rock]], to establish a labor statistics board, to create the state highway commission, and adopt the official state flag. He left the governorship to succeed U. S. Senator Jefferson Davis (,  who had died on January 3, after the legislature had re-elected him to a new term beginning on March 4, 1913.<ref name=bioguide>{{cite web|url=https://bioguideretro.congress.gov/Home/MemberDetails?memIndex=R000347|title=Joseph T. Robinson|publisher=Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress|accessdate=February 24, 2021}}</ref>

In 1894, at the age of twenty-two, Robinson was elected to the Arkansas legislature and served one term. In 1902, he was elected to the [[United States House of Representatives]] for the since abolished 6th congressional district and was re-elected to four subsequent terms ending in 1913. In 1912, Robinson was elected governor, in which capacity over a few weeks he advocated funding to complete the new state capitol building in [[Little Rock]], to establish a labor statistics board, to create the state highway commission, and adopt the official state flag. He left the governorship to succeed U. S. Senator Jefferson Davis (,  who had died on January 3, after the legislature had re-elected him to a new term beginning on March 4, 1913.<ref name=bioguide>{{cite web|url=https://bioguideretro.congress.gov/Home/MemberDetails?memIndex=R000347|title=Joseph T. Robinson|publisher=Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress|accessdate=February 24, 2021}}</ref>

A [[progressive]], Robinson was a staunch supporter of [[U.S. President]] [[Woodrow Wilson]]. He was the chairman of the 1920 Democratic National Convention, which nominated the losing James M. Cox-[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] ticket, defeated by [[Warren Harding]] and [[Calvin Coolidge]].<ref name=senate>{{cite web|url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/People_Leaders_Robinson.htm |title=U.S. Senate: Art & History Home > Senate Leaders |publisher=United States Senate|accessdate=February 24, 2021}}</ref> In 1923, Robinson's colleagues named him the Senate Minority Leader. He sought the Democratic presidential nomination as a "favorite son" candidate in 1924 but lost out to John William Davis (1873-1955), a conservative corporation attorney from [[West Virginia]], who subsequently voted against Franklin Roosevelt.

A [[progressive]], Robinson was a staunch supporter of [[U.S. President]] [[Woodrow Wilson]]. He was the chairman of the 1920 Democratic National Convention, which nominated the losing James M. Cox-[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] ticket, defeated by [[Warren Harding]] and [[Calvin Coolidge]].<ref name=senate>{{cite web|url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/People_Leaders_Robinson.htm |title=U.S. Senate: Art & History Home > Senate Leaders |publisher=United States Senate|accessdate=February 24, 2021}}</ref> In 1923, Robinson's colleagues named him the Senate Minority Leader. He sought the Democratic presidential nomination as a "favorite son" candidate in 1924 but lost out to John William Davis (1873–1955), a conservative corporation attorney from [[West Virginia]], who subsequently voted against Franklin Roosevelt.

When the Democrats took control of the Senate in 1933 with the election of Franklin Roosevelt as President Robinson was named Senate Majority Leader, in which capacity he helped to pass much of the [[New Deal]] agenda. He was the last U.S. Senator elected by a state legislature rather than by direct popular vote, mandated by the [[Seventeenth Amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]], which took effect on April 8, 1913.

When the Democrats took control of the Senate in 1933 with the election of Franklin Roosevelt as President Robinson was named Senate Majority Leader, in which capacity he helped to pass much of the [[New Deal]] agenda. He was the last U.S. Senator elected by a state legislature rather than by direct popular vote, mandated by the [[Seventeenth Amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]], which took effect on April 8, 1913.

===In the Senate===

===In the Senate===

From the outset, Robinson delivered well-crafted speeches and mastered the complicated rules and practices of the Senate. He arrived at the Senate early, left late, and studied legislation in his [[Washington, D.C.]], apartment. He championed the Keating-Owen Child Labor Act and the regulation of [[railroad]]s and other industries. He led the Senate to arm merchant ships and voted to declare war on [[Germany]]. He also led the unsuccessful effort in the Senate to ratify the failed [[Treaty of Versailles]] of 1919.<ref name=ency>{{cite web|url=http://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=121 |title=Joseph Taylor Robinson (1872–1937) |publisher=Encyclopedia of Arkansas|accessdate=February 24, 2021}}</ref>

From the outset, Robinson delivered well-crafted speeches and mastered the complicated rules and practices of the Senate. He arrived at the Senate early, left late, and studied legislation in his [[Washington, D.C.]], apartment. He championed the Keating-Owen Child Labor Act and the regulation of [[railroad]]s and other industries. He led the Senate to arm merchant ships and voted to declare war on [[Germany]]. He also led the unsuccessful effort in the Senate to ratify the failed [[Treaty of Versailles]] of 1919.<ref name=ency>{{cite web|url=http://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=121 |title=Joseph Taylor Robinson (1872–1937) |publisher=Encyclopedia of Arkansas|accessdate=February 24, 2021}}</ref>

Robinson gained influence in the Senate and later was the chairman of the 1920 Democratic National Convention. Robinson was re-elected to the Senate in 1918, 1924, 1930, and 1936.  In 1923, the Senate Democratic floor leader, Oscar Wilder Underwood (1862-1929) of [[Alabama]], resigned because of illness.<ref name=senate/>  Senior Democratic Senator Furnifold McLendel Simmons (1854-1940) of [[North Carolina]] was expected to succeed Underwood but withdrew from consideration after Robinson challenged him.<ref name=senate/> By unanimous acclamation, Robinson became the Democratic leader, a position he would hold until his death in 1937.<ref name=senate/>

Robinson gained influence in the Senate and later was the chairman of the 1920 Democratic National Convention. Robinson was re-elected to the Senate in 1918, 1924, 1930, and 1936.  In 1923, the Senate Democratic floor leader, Oscar Wilder Underwood (1862–1929) of [[Alabama]], resigned because of illness.<ref name=senate/>  Senior Democratic Senator Furnifold McLendel Simmons (1854–1940) of [[North Carolina]] was expected to succeed Underwood but withdrew from consideration after Robinson challenged him.<ref name=senate/> By unanimous acclamation, Robinson became the Democratic leader, a position he would hold until his death in 1937.<ref name=senate/>

As minority leader, Robinson took over the distribution of patronage appointments and reformed the committee assignment process, decreeing that no senator could chair or be the ranking member of more than one important committee. A Capitol Hill resident, he never strayed far from the Senate chamber but kept a constant watch over the proceedings in order to capitalize on any dissension within the Republican ranks.<ref name=senate/> Known as a "horse trader," he worked quietly to reach compromises with the three Republican presidents of the 1920s.<ref name=senate/>

As minority leader, Robinson took over the distribution of patronage appointments and reformed the committee assignment process, decreeing that no senator could chair or be the ranking member of more than one important committee. A Capitol Hill resident, he never strayed far from the Senate chamber but kept a constant watch over the proceedings in order to capitalize on any dissension within the Republican ranks.<ref name=senate/> Known as a "horse trader," he worked quietly to reach compromises with the three Republican presidents of the 1920s.<ref name=senate/>

Robinson had presidential aspirations of his own. In 1924, he was a "favorite son" contender for the Democratic nomination. He carried the backing of the southern conservative members of his party.<ref name=senate/> That year, however, an incident on a [[golf]] course overshadowed his presidential bid. At the Chevy Chase Country Club in [[Maryland]] , a surgeon asked Robinson to permit him to move ahead of the slow-moving foursome that Robinson was playing. After a few angry words, he knocked the doctor to the ground. The club expelled Robinson from its membership, and the press began referring to him as the "pugilist" senator.<ref name=senate/>

Robinson had presidential aspirations of his own. In 1924, he was a "favorite son" contender for the Democratic nomination. He carried the backing of the southern conservative members of his party.<ref name=senate/> That year, however, an incident on a [[golf]] course overshadowed his presidential bid. At the Chevy Chase Country Club in [[Maryland]] , a surgeon asked Robinson to permit him to move ahead of the slow-moving foursome that Robinson was playing. After a few angry words, he knocked the doctor to the ground. The club expelled Robinson from its membership, and the press began referring to him as the "pugilist" senator.<ref name=senate/>

Robinson was the Democratic candidate for vice president in 1928, as the running mate of the [[Roman Catholic]] [[Alfred E. Smith]]. Early in 1928, Robinson clashed with Senator James Thomas Heflin (1869-1951), a Democrat from Alabama, who frequently inserted anti-Catholic sentiments into his speeches. Robinson admonished his views, stating that religious affiliation had no bearing on a person's credentials for higher office.<ref name=senate/> On one famous occasion, he declared, "I have heard [the senator] denounce the Catholic Church and the Pope of [[Rome]] and the cardinal and the bishop and the priest and the nun until I am sick and tired of it, as a Democrat." Helfin retorted, "The Senator from Arkansas cannot remain leader of the Democrats and fight the Roman Catholics' battle every time the issue is raised in this body."<ref name=senate/> Interpreting the remark as a challenge to his authority, Robinson compelled the senators by a near unanimous vote to pledge their continued support to him.<ref name=senate/>

Robinson was the Democratic candidate for vice president in 1928, as the running mate of the [[Roman Catholic]] [[Alfred E. Smith]]. Early in 1928, Robinson clashed with Senator James Thomas Heflin (1869–1951), a Democrat from Alabama, who frequently inserted anti-Catholic sentiments into his speeches. Robinson admonished his views, stating that religious affiliation had no bearing on a person's credentials for higher office.<ref name=senate/> On one famous occasion, he declared, "I have heard [the senator] denounce the Catholic Church and the Pope of [[Rome]] and the cardinal and the bishop and the priest and the nun until I am sick and tired of it, as a Democrat." Helfin retorted, "The Senator from Arkansas cannot remain leader of the Democrats and fight the Roman Catholics' battle every time the issue is raised in this body."<ref name=senate/> Interpreting the remark as a challenge to his authority, Robinson compelled the senators by a near unanimous vote to pledge their continued support to him.<ref name=senate/>

Though Smith lost to Republican Herbert Hoover,  Robinson emerged from the campaign a national figure, now known for the impassioned speeches he had made around the country on behalf of Smith and the Democratic platform. He continued to score victories as the Senate minority leader, but his cooperative relationship with Hoover riled the members of his party. They understood that no other senator possessed Robinson's perseverance and influence.<ref name=senate/>

Though Smith lost to Republican Herbert Hoover,  Robinson emerged from the campaign a national figure, now known for the impassioned speeches he had made around the country on behalf of Smith and the Democratic platform. He continued to score victories as the Senate minority leader, but his cooperative relationship with Hoover riled the members of his party. They understood that no other senator possessed Robinson's perseverance and influence.<ref name=senate/>

Richard L. Riedel, a Senate press gallery attendant in the 1920s and 1930s, recalled that "When [Robinson] would go into one of his rages, it took little imagination to see fire and smoke rolling out of his mouth like some fierce dragon. Even when he kidded me, he spoke in loud gasps while puffing his cigar. Robinson could make Senators and everyone in his presence quake by the burning fire of his eyes, the baring of his teeth as he ground out the words, and the clenching of his mighty fists as he beat on the desk before him."<ref>Richard L. Riedel, ''Halls of the Mighty: My 47 Years in the Senate,'' (Washington and New York: Robert B. Luce Publishers, 1969), p. 142.</ref>

Richard L. Riedel, a Senate press gallery attendant in the 1920s and 1930s, recalled that "When [Robinson] would go into one of his rages, it took little imagination to see fire and smoke rolling out of his mouth like some fierce dragon. Even when he kidded me, he spoke in loud gasps while puffing his cigar. Robinson could make Senators and everyone in his presence quake by the burning fire of his eyes, the baring of his teeth as he ground out the words, and the clenching of his mighty fists as he beat on the desk before him."<ref>Richard L. Riedel, ''Halls of the Mighty: My 47 Years in the Senate,'' (Washington and New York: Robert B. Luce Publishers, 1969), p. 142.</ref>

"Scrappy Joe," as the press called him, nearly came to blows with Senate colleagues [[Robert LaFollette|Robert Marion LaFollette, Sr.]], of [[Wisconsin]], Porter James McCumber (1858-1933) of [[North Dakota]], James Thomas Heflin (1869-1951) of Alabama, and [[Huey Long|Huey Pierce Long, Jr.]], of [[Louisiana]].  Once the United States entered World War I, Robinson denounced his colleagues who opposed the war effort.  After La Follette opposed it, Robinson questioned his patriotism on the Senate floor and La Follette had to be restrained in a near brawl with Robinson.<ref name=senate /> He also punched in the face a guard who questioned his credentials at the 1920 Democratic convention held in [[San Francisco]], [[California]].<ref name=senate/> Despite this temper, he still managed to court strong friendships across party lines.<ref>Bacon, 65, 68.</ref>

"Scrappy Joe," as the press called him, nearly came to blows with Senate colleagues [[Robert LaFollette|Robert Marion LaFollette, Sr.]], of [[Wisconsin]], Porter James McCumber (1858–1933) of [[North Dakota]], James Thomas Heflin (1869–1951) of Alabama, and [[Huey Long|Huey Pierce Long, Jr.]], of [[Louisiana]].  Once the United States entered World War I, Robinson denounced his colleagues who opposed the war effort.  After La Follette opposed it, Robinson questioned his patriotism on the Senate floor and La Follette had to be restrained in a near brawl with Robinson.<ref name=senate /> He also punched in the face a guard who questioned his credentials at the 1920 Democratic convention held in [[San Francisco]], [[California]].<ref name=senate/> Despite this temper, he still managed to court strong friendships across party lines.<ref>Bacon, 65, 68.</ref>

===Court-packing proposal===

===Court-packing proposal===