Changes

{{quotebox|"Sol Adler, as well as two other friends of China, [[Jack Service]] and Frank Coe, confronted [[McCarthyism|the Joseph McCarthy persecution]]. So Sol left the US to stay in the [[UK]]. During this period, he visited China many times and in various ways introduced New China to the outside world. His book ''The Chinese Economy'' in 1957 won worldwide acclaim. In 1962, when the Chinese people were facing great difficulties at home and abroad, Sol Adler resolutely decided to come and settle in China.

{{quotebox|"Sol Adler, as well as two other friends of China, [[Jack Service]] and Frank Coe, confronted [[McCarthyism|the Joseph McCarthy persecution]]. So Sol left the US to stay in the [[UK]]. During this period, he visited China many times and in various ways introduced New China to the outside world. His book ''The Chinese Economy'' in 1957 won worldwide acclaim. In 1962, when the Chinese people were facing great difficulties at home and abroad, Sol Adler resolutely decided to come and settle in China.

He said, "I have come to settle in China for three reasons: First, I have all along had great trust and confidence in the Chinese people and their leaders; second, I have all along had unshakable faith in the cause of [[socialism]]; and third, I hope to stay in China for as long as possible and work for world peace and the friendship between the Chinese people and the peoples of the world. I want to devote my whole life to the cause of socialism.".<ref>[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2009-09/05/content_8658159.htm China Daily, Sol Adler, a soulful friend (China Daily) Updated: 2009-09-05 07:39 ]</ref>}}

He said, "I have come to settle in China for three reasons: First, I have all along had great trust and [[confidence]] in the Chinese people and their leaders; second, I have all along had unshakable faith in the cause of [[socialism]]; and third, I hope to stay in China for as long as possible and work for world peace and the friendship between the Chinese people and the peoples of the world. I want to devote my whole life to the cause of socialism.".<ref>[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2009-09/05/content_8658159.htm China Daily, Sol Adler, a soulful friend (China Daily) Updated: 2009-09-05 07:39 ]</ref>}}

Chinese [[historical revisionism]] now refers to The Great Leap Forward as The '''Three Years of Disasters'''.  Mao's successor Deng Xiaoping claimed the death toll to be only 16 million, one-third the actual number of victims.<ref>''Mao: The Real Story'', by Alexander P. Pantsov with Steven I. Levine, pg. 472.</ref>  The Great Leap Forward remains the greatest prime example of the failure of socialist [[economic planning]]

Chinese [[historical revisionism]] now refers to The Great Leap Forward as The '''Three Years of Disasters'''.  Mao's successor Deng Xiaoping claimed the death toll to be only 16 million, one-third the actual number of victims.<ref>''Mao: The Real Story'', by Alexander P. Pantsov with Steven I. Levine, pg. 472.</ref>  The Great Leap Forward remains the greatest prime example of the failure of socialist [[economic planning]]

Mao's regime imposed strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of people. The [[Cultural Revolution]] of 1966-76 was inspired by Mao and devastated the intellectual class. Tens of thousands of intellectuals and teachers were educators were insulted, tortured, driven to suicide or executed by their students. Mobilized as members of the Red Guards, a new youth organization, the students attacked the educators as "capitalist intellectuals." From 1967 to 1978, the state "send-down" (rustication) policy 17 million urban youth to live and work in rural areas, with a permanent negative impact on their intellectual development and careers.<ref>Xueguang Zhou and Liren Hou, "Children of the Cultural Revolution: the State and the Life Course in the People's Republic of China." ''American Sociological Review'' 1999 64(1): 12-36. Issn: 0003-1224 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2657275 in Jstor ]</ref>  

Mao's regime imposed strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of people. The [[Cultural Revolution]] of 1966-76 was inspired by Mao and devastated the intellectual class. Tens of thousands of intellectuals and teachers were educators were insulted, tortured, driven to suicide or executed by their students. Mobilized as members of the Red Guards, a new youth organization, the students attacked the educators as "capitalist intellectuals." From 1967 to 1978, the state "send-down" (rustication) policy 17 million urban youth to live and work in rural areas, with a permanent negative impact on their intellectual development and careers.<ref>Xueguang Zhou and Liren Hou, "Children of the Cultural Revolution: the State and the Life Course in the People's Republic of China." ''American Sociological Review'' 1999 64(1): 12-36. Issn: 0003-1224 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2657275 in Jstor ]</ref>  

The upheaval was not limited to the cities.  Maoist political ideology and teachings provided the catalyst for village conflicts that brought out traditional grievances and further escalated the conflicts. Some of the catalysts were student activists carrying out Mao's teachings, factional disputes, and the Four Clean-up campaigns that purged village officials and corruption. These conflicts spread to traditional grievances like lineage and hamlet hostilities and disputes over leadership and rights. Often, the conflicts caused by Party politics intersected traditional conflicts to the extent that the root causes of the conflicts were lost. This resulted in further escalation of the conflicts, which became more complex and widespread.   

The upheaval was not limited to the cities.  Maoist political ideology and teachings provided the catalyst for village conflicts that brought out traditional grievances and further escalated the conflicts. Some of the catalysts were student activists carrying out Mao's teachings, factional disputes, and the Four Clean-up campaigns that purged village officials and corruption. These conflicts spread to traditional grievances like lineage and hamlet hostilities and disputes over leadership and rights. Often, the conflicts caused by Party politics intersected traditional conflicts to the extent that the root causes of the conflicts were lost. This resulted in further [[escalation]] of the conflicts, which became more complex and widespread.   

[[File:Nixon in China.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Chou Enlai (left) President Nixon (center) Jiang Qing (right)]]

[[File:Nixon in China.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Chou Enlai (left) President Nixon (center) Jiang Qing (right)]]

In rural China an estimated 750,000 to 1.5 million people were killed, and about as many permanently injured; 36 million who suffered some form of political persecution. The vast majority of these casualties occurred from 1968 to 1971, after the end of the period of popular rebellion and factional conflict and the establishment of provisional organs of local state power.<ref>Jonathan Unger, "Cultural Revolution Conflict in the Villages." ''China Quarterly'' 1998 (153): 82-106. Issn: 0305-7410 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/655831 in Jstor] ; Andrew G. Walder, and Yang Su, "The Cultural Revolution in the Countryside: Scope, Timing and Human Impact." ''China Quarterly'' 2003 (173): 74-99. Issn: 0305-7410</ref>   

In rural China an estimated 750,000 to 1.5 million people were killed, and about as many permanently injured; 36 million who suffered some form of political persecution. The vast majority of these casualties occurred from 1968 to 1971, after the end of the period of popular rebellion and factional conflict and the establishment of provisional organs of local state power.<ref>Jonathan Unger, "Cultural Revolution Conflict in the Villages." ''China Quarterly'' 1998 (153): 82-106. Issn: 0305-7410 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/655831 in Jstor] ; Andrew G. Walder, and Yang Su, "The Cultural Revolution in the Countryside: Scope, Timing and Human Impact." ''China Quarterly'' 2003 (173): 74-99. Issn: 0305-7410</ref>   

====Economic reform and opening trade====

====Economic reform and opening trade====

In recent years, Chinese leaders have been regular travelers to all parts of the globe, and China has sought a higher profile in the UN through its permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council and other multilateral organizations.

In recent years, Chinese leaders have been regular travelers to all parts of the globe, and China has sought a higher profile in the UN through its permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council and other multilateral organizations.  

Closer to home, China made efforts to reduce tensions in Asia, hosting the Six-Party Talks on North Korea's nuclear weapons program, cultivating a more cooperative relationship with members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and participating in the ASEAN Regional Forum. The PRC took steps to improve relations with countries in South Asia, including India. Following Premier Wen's 2005 visit to India, the two sides moved to increase commercial and cultural ties, as well as to resolve longstanding border disputes. The November 2006 visit of President Hu was the first state visit by a Chinese head of state to India in 10 years.  

 

 

 

 

Closer to home, China made efforts to reduce tensions in Asia, hosting the Six-Party Talks on North Korea's nuclear weapons program, cultivating a more cooperative relationship with members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and participating in the ASEAN Regional Forum. The PRC took steps to improve relations with countries in South Asia, including India. Following Premier Wen's 2005 visit to India, the two sides moved to increase commercial and cultural ties, as well as to resolve longstanding border disputes. The November 2006 visit of President Hu was the first state visit by a Chinese head of state to India in 10 years.

 

Together with strong economic growth, China's demand for energy is surging rapidly. In 2003, China surpassed Japan to become the second-largest consumer of primary energy, after the United States. China is the world's second-largest consumer of oil, after the United States, and for 2006, China's increase in oil demand represented 38% of the world total increase in oil demand. China is also the third-largest energy producer in the world, after the United States and Russia. China's electricity consumption is expected to grow by over 4% a year through 2030, which will require more than $2 trillion in electricity infrastructure investment to meet the demand. China expects to add approximately 15,000 megawatts of generating capacity a year, with 20% of that coming from foreign suppliers.

====Shanghai Cooperation Organization====

====Shanghai Cooperation Organization====

China has likewise improved ties with Russia, with Presidents Putin and Hu exchanging visits to Beijing and Moscow in April 2006 and March 2007. A second round of Russia-China joint military exercises was scheduled for fall 2007. China played a prominent role in the '''Shanghai Cooperation Organization''' ('''SCO'''), a regional grouping that includes Russia and the Central Asian nations of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Beijing has resolved many of its border and maritime disputes, notably including a November 1997 agreement with Russia that resolved almost all outstanding border issues and a 2000 agreement with Vietnam to resolve differences over their maritime border, though disagreements remain over islands in the [[South China Sea]]. Relations with Japan improved following Japanese Prime Minister [[Shinzo Abe]]'s October 2006 visit to Beijing, although longstanding and emotionally charged disputes over history and competing claims to portions of the East China Sea remain sources of tension.  

China has likewise improved ties with Russia, with [[President Putin]] and Hu exchanging visits to [[Beijing]] and [[Moscow]] in April 2006 and March 2007. A second round of Russia-China joint military exercises was scheduled for fall 2007. China played a prominent role in the '''Shanghai Cooperation Organization''' ('''SCO'''), a regional grouping that includes Russia and the Central Asian nations of [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Tajikistan]], and [[Uzbekistan]]. Beijing has resolved many of its border and [[maritime]] disputes, notably including a November 1997 agreement with Russia that resolved almost all outstanding border issues and a 2000 agreement with [[Vietnam]] to resolve differences over their maritime border, though disagreements remain over islands in the [[South China Sea]]. Relations with [[Japan]] improved following Japanese Prime Minister [[Shinzo Abe]]'s October 2006 visit to Beijing, although longstanding and emotionally charged disputes over [[history]] and competing claims to portions of the [[East China Sea]] remain sources of tension.

 

While in many ways Sudan's primary [[diplomatic]] patron, China has played a role in support of [[U.N. Peacekeeping]] operations in [[Southern Sudan]] and pledged to contribute an engineering unit in support of [[UN]] operations in [[Darfur]]. China has stated publicly that it shares the [[international]] community's concern over Iran's [[nuclear]] program and has voted in support of UN sanctions resolutions on Iran. Set against this has been an effort on the part of China to maintain close ties to countries such as Iran, [[Sudan]], [[Zimbabwe]], and [[Venezuela]], which are sources of oil and other resources and which welcome China's non-conditional assistance and investment.

While in many ways Sudan's primary diplomatic patron, China has played a role in support of U.N. Peacekeeping operations in Southern Sudan and pledged to contribute an engineering unit in support of UN operations in Darfur. China has stated publicly that it shares the international community's concern over Iran's nuclear program and has voted in support of UN sanctions resolutions on Iran. Set against this has been an effort on the part of China to maintain close ties to countries such as Iran, Sudan, Zimbabwe, and Venezuela, which are sources of oil and other resources and which welcome China's non-conditional assistance and investment.

Bt 2026 the Shanghai Cooperation Organization has grown to encompass [[Russia]], China, [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Iran]], and [[Central Asia]]n states representing nearly half the world's [[population]]. Originally focused on regional [[security]], the SCO now positions itself as a platform for advancing [[multipolar]]ity and resisting [[Western alliance|Western]] [[hegemony]].

====Military developments====

====Military developments====