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{{Christianity}}

{{Christianity}}

'''Pope''' (from Greek πάππας ''pappas'', father)<ref>pope: [https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=pope American Heritage Dictionary]</ref> is the primary designation of the official title of each of the primary heads (''on earth'') of four Christian Churches<ref>[https://www.quora.com/How-many-popes-are-there How Many Popes Are There? (quora.com)]</ref> who exercise '''[[patriarch]]al''' primacy (from Latin ''patriarcha'', from Greek ''patriarkhēs'' head of a family, from ''patria'' family, clan, lineage, and ''archein'' to rule):<ref>patriarch: [https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=patriarch American Heritage Dictionary]</ref>

'''Pope''' (from Greek πάππας ''pappas'', father)<ref>pope: [https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=pope American Heritage Dictionary]</ref> is the primary designation of the official title of each of the primary heads (''on earth'') of four Christian Churches<ref>[https://www.quora.com/How-many-popes-are-there How Many Popes Are There? (quora.com)]</ref> who exercise '''[[patriarch]]al''' primacy (from Latin ''patriarcha'', from Greek ''patriarkhēs'' head of a family, from ''patria'' family, clan, lineage, and ''archein'' to rule):<ref>patriarch: [https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=patriarch American Heritage Dictionary]</ref>

*The Pope and Ecumenical Patriarch of the [[Roman Catholic Church | Catholic Church]] and Patriarch of the West, (in Rome)

*The Pope and Ecumenical Patriarch of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Church]] and Patriarch of the West, (in Rome)

*The Pope of the Greek [[Orthodox Church]] of Alexandria and Patriarch of All-Africa ([[Great_Schism#Chalcedonian_Schism |Calcedonian]])<ref>[https://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_of_Alexandria Church of Alexandria (orthodoxwiki.org)]</ref>

*The Pope of the Greek [[Orthodox Church]] of Alexandria and Patriarch of All-Africa ([[Great Schism#Chalcedonian Schism|Calcedonian]])<ref>[https://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_of_Alexandria Church of Alexandria (orthodoxwiki.org)]</ref>

*The Pope of the [[ Coptic Church | Coptic Orthodox Church]] of Alexandria and Patriarch of All-Africa ([[Great_Schism#Chalcedonian_Schism | Non-Calcedonian]])<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Coptic-Orthodox-Church-of-Alexandria Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria (britannica.com)]</ref>

*The Pope of the [[Coptic Church|Coptic Orthodox Church]] of Alexandria and Patriarch of All-Africa ([[Great Schism#Chalcedonian Schism|Non-Calcedonian]])<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Coptic-Orthodox-Church-of-Alexandria Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria (britannica.com)]</ref>

*The Pope of The Palmarian Catholic Church (in Spain)<ref>[http://www.traditionalcatholic.info/palmarian-church/ Palmarian Church (traditionalcatholic.info)]</ref>

*The Pope of The Palmarian Catholic Church (in Spain)<ref>[http://www.traditionalcatholic.info/palmarian-church/ Palmarian Church (traditionalcatholic.info)]</ref>

*'''Cross'''

*'''Cross'''

The pope moreover does not, like ordinary bishops, use the bent pastoral staff, but only the erect cross. This custom was introduced before the reign of [[Pope Innocent III]] (1198-1216) (cap. un. X de sacra unctione, I, 15).  

The pope moreover does not, like ordinary bishops, use the bent pastoral staff, but only the erect cross. This custom was introduced before the reign of [[Pope Innocent III]] (1198–1216) (cap. un. X de sacra unctione, I, 15).  

* '''Pallium'''

* '''Pallium'''

Critics of the papacy claim that past popes who claimed successorship to St. Peter, such as [[Pope Callixtus III]] and [[Pope Alexander VI]] from the Borgia family, were so corrupt as to be unfit to wield power. A just and loving [[God]], they claim, would not have given such people the powers claimed for them by the Catholic Church, if the Holy Spirit were truly in the Catholic Church and infallibly guiding it by His divine power: such men would never have been elected. Opponents of these critics reply that even the worst popes failed to wreck the apostolic traditions of the Church, which have been faithfully handed down and preserved intact and defended and rightly interpreted by the Church's Living [[Magisterium]]. They point out that Jesus even knowingly chose [[Judas Iscariot]] (one of the [[Twelve Apostles|Twelve]] whom Jesus said was "a devil", John 6:70-71), and not even the [[sin]] and betrayal of this validly appointed apostle could invalidate his work and teaching.

Critics of the papacy claim that past popes who claimed successorship to St. Peter, such as [[Pope Callixtus III]] and [[Pope Alexander VI]] from the Borgia family, were so corrupt as to be unfit to wield power. A just and loving [[God]], they claim, would not have given such people the powers claimed for them by the Catholic Church, if the Holy Spirit were truly in the Catholic Church and infallibly guiding it by His divine power: such men would never have been elected. Opponents of these critics reply that even the worst popes failed to wreck the apostolic traditions of the Church, which have been faithfully handed down and preserved intact and defended and rightly interpreted by the Church's Living [[Magisterium]]. They point out that Jesus even knowingly chose [[Judas Iscariot]] (one of the [[Twelve Apostles|Twelve]] whom Jesus said was "a devil", John 6:70-71), and not even the [[sin]] and betrayal of this validly appointed apostle could invalidate his work and teaching.

Professional historians are generally agreed that at least four or five Popes were guilty of serious moral lapses, perhaps more. Some critics of the Church have tried to use this documented factual information to undermine the Catholic teaching on infallibility by confusing ''infallibility'' with ''impeccability''. Infallibility is the divinely imposed inability of the Holy Father to teach error when he speaks [[ex cathedra]] on a matter of faith and morals which must be finally clearly defined and settled, but impeccability would be a divinely imposed inability of the Holy Father to commit any sin. The Church has never claimed impeccability for any Pope, although many of them have lived lives of extraordinary [[Saint|holiness]], because we are all sinners,<ref>Romans 3:23-26; 1 Timothy 1:16.</ref> but it has claimed the unmerited [[Charism|charism]] of ''infallibility of teaching'' for every Pope, because of Christ's promises of the abiding presence and guidance of the [[Holy Spirit]] to lead us into all truth forever, the commandment to "''obey your leaders and submit to them''",<ref>[http://www.biblehub.com/commentaries/hebrews/13-17.htm Hebrews 13:17]</ref> and his promises to be with His Church all days, and that the gates of Hell shall never prevail against it, even if "''fierce wolves will come in among you, not sparing the flock; and from among your own selves will arise men speaking perverse things, to draw away the disciples after them.''".<ref>Acts 20:29-30</ref>  

Professional historians are generally agreed that at least four or five Popes were guilty of serious moral lapses, perhaps more. Some critics of the Church have tried to use this documented factual information to undermine the Catholic teaching on infallibility by confusing ''infallibility'' with ''impeccability''. Infallibility is the divinely imposed inability of the Holy Father to teach error when he speaks [[ex cathedra]] on a matter of faith and morals which must be finally clearly defined and settled, but impeccability would be a divinely imposed inability of the Holy Father to commit any sin. The Church has never claimed impeccability for any Pope, although many of them have lived lives of extraordinary [[Saint|holiness]], because we are all sinners,<ref>Romans 3:23-26; 1 Timothy 1:16.</ref> but it has claimed the unmerited [[charism]] of ''infallibility of teaching'' for every Pope, because of Christ's promises of the abiding presence and guidance of the [[Holy Spirit]] to lead us into all truth forever, the commandment to "''obey your leaders and submit to them''",<ref>[http://www.biblehub.com/commentaries/hebrews/13-17.htm Hebrews 13:17]</ref> and his promises to be with His Church all days, and that the gates of Hell shall never prevail against it, even if "''fierce wolves will come in among you, not sparing the flock; and from among your own selves will arise men speaking perverse things, to draw away the disciples after them.''".<ref>Acts 20:29-30</ref>  

   

   

The established fact that some popes were wicked in their private lives is no argument against the truth of the doctrine and dogma of the Catholic Church, no more than proven immoral conduct by an American president is an argument against the goodness of the United States and the validity of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]]. This historically documented fact is actually presented as an argument for the reliability of the Church, since it continued during the reign of those unworthy Popes to teach faithfully the truths handed down by Christ and the Apostles and, while wounded by their evident wickedness, suffered no lasting harm from the immoral conduct of a tiny percentage of its more than 265 leaders.<ref>"tiny percentage". Less than 3 percent = at most 10 popes. See [[Pope#External links|External links, below]]. Estimates range from 5 to 10 truly corrupt popes in the entire history of the Church.</ref>  

The established fact that some popes were wicked in their private lives is no argument against the truth of the doctrine and dogma of the Catholic Church, no more than proven immoral conduct by an American president is an argument against the goodness of the United States and the validity of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]]. This historically documented fact is actually presented as an argument for the reliability of the Church, since it continued during the reign of those unworthy Popes to teach faithfully the truths handed down by Christ and the Apostles and, while wounded by their evident wickedness, suffered no lasting harm from the immoral conduct of a tiny percentage of its more than 265 leaders.<ref>"tiny percentage". Less than 3 percent = at most 10 popes. See [[Pope#External links|External links, below]]. Estimates range from 5 to 10 truly corrupt popes in the entire history of the Church.</ref>  

"'''I will give to you the keys of the Kingdom of Heaven'''" Matthew 16:19. The Greek word '''σοι''' "''to you''" here is singular, not the plural '''ὑμῖν''' "''to you''", and therefore this declaration was not addressed to the entire immediate group of his assembled disciples, ''[[Eisegesis|as some would have it]]'', but only to Peter. The structure of Greek grammar in this text clearly permits no other reading.

"'''I will give to you the keys of the Kingdom of Heaven'''" Matthew 16:19. The Greek word '''σοι''' "''to you''" here is singular, not the plural '''ὑμῖν''' "''to you''", and therefore this declaration was not addressed to the entire immediate group of his assembled disciples, ''[[Eisegesis|as some would have it]]'', but only to Peter. The structure of Greek grammar in this text clearly permits no other reading.

In the later apparently parallel text of Matthew 18:18 the phrase "''keys of the Kingdom of Heaven''" does not appear (see verses 15-20). On the principle of ''sola scriptura'', there is no linguistic textual basis for saying that Jesus gave the "''keys''" to all the apostles on that occasion, but only that he gave them all the collective authority to bind and loose together, an authority which is distinctly different from the authority to open and shut the "''Kingdom of Heaven''" (see Revelation 1:17-18; 3:7).  

In the later apparently parallel text of Matthew 18:18 the phrase "''keys of the Kingdom of Heaven''" does not appear (see verses 15–20). On the principle of ''sola scriptura'', there is no linguistic textual basis for saying that Jesus gave the "''keys''" to all the apostles on that occasion, but only that he gave them all the collective authority to bind and loose together, an authority which is distinctly different from the authority to open and shut the "''Kingdom of Heaven''" (see Revelation 1:17-18; 3:7).  

Catholics maintain that there is a significant distinction here, and that the previous occasion in Matthew 16:18 is a specific fulfillment of the prophesy of the keys in '''[http://www.biblehub.com/commentaries/isaiah/22-22.htm Isaiah 22:22]''' pointing to one man, not many.  

Catholics maintain that there is a significant distinction here, and that the previous occasion in Matthew 16:18 is a specific fulfillment of the prophesy of the keys in '''[http://www.biblehub.com/commentaries/isaiah/22-22.htm Isaiah 22:22]''' pointing to one man, not many.  

The equivalent Aramaic term in the [[Aramaic Church#The Peshitta|Syriac ''Peshitta'']] translation of the New Testament is '''κεφα''' ''Kepa / Cep-ha'', simply "rock":  

The equivalent Aramaic term in the [[Aramaic Church#The Peshitta|Syriac ''Peshitta'']] translation of the New Testament is '''κεφα''' ''Kepa / Cep-ha'', simply "rock":  

:"''I tell you, you are ''Kepha'', and on this ''Kepha'' I will build my church.''"  

:"''I tell you, you are ''Kepha'', and on this ''Kepha'' I will build my church.''"  

The Greek form of this Aramaic word is "''Cephas''", pronounced "''kepas''". This can be seen as a fulfillment of the prophesy of the stone (rock) formed without hands which became a great mountain which filled the whole earth in Daniel 2:34-35, 44-45, and in Isaiah 2:1-5. Catholics point to the fact that the whole Catholic Church "founded by Jesus on Peter the Rock" is worldwide and the largest Christian denomination on earth.

The Greek form of this Aramaic word is "''Cephas''", pronounced "''kepas''". This can be seen as a fulfillment of the prophesy of the stone (rock) formed without hands which became a great mountain which filled the whole earth in Daniel 2:34-35, 44–45, and in Isaiah 2:1-5. Catholics point to the fact that the whole Catholic Church "founded by Jesus on Peter the Rock" is worldwide and the largest Christian denomination on earth.

=====Peter and Paul=====

=====Peter and Paul=====

The Pope officially either directly presided over most of the [[Ecumenical council]]s of the Christian Church or he sent his personal representatives called papal [[legate]]s to act and speak in his name with his authority.

The Pope officially either directly presided over most of the [[Ecumenical council]]s of the Christian Church or he sent his personal representatives called papal [[legate]]s to act and speak in his name with his authority.

====The First Ecumenical Council====  

====The First Ecumenical Council====

[[Council of Nicaea|First Council of Nicaea]] 325, called by the Roman Emperor [[Constantine]] the Great with Pope [[Saint Sylvester I]] sitting on the Throne of Peter as the 33rd successor of Saint Peter.

[[Council of Nicaea|First Council of Nicaea]] 325, called by the Roman Emperor [[Constantine]] the Great with Pope [[Saint Sylvester I]] sitting on the Throne of Peter as the 33rd successor of Saint Peter.

====The Second Ecumenical Council====  

====The Second Ecumenical Council====

[[Constantinople I|First Council of Constantinople]] 381 convened by the Roman Emperor of the West [[Gratian]] and the Roman Emperor of the East [[Theodosius&nbsp;I]]. Neither the Holy Father Pope Saint [[Damasus I]] or his papal legates attended because of friction between him and the eastern emperor over authority. Already the split between East and West was manifesting itself. 186 bishops did attend, including [[Saint Gregory Nazianzen]] and Saint [[Cyril of Jerusalem]]. Canon 3 of this Council states: "''Because it is new Rome, the bishop of Constantinople is to enjoy the privileges of honor after the bishop of Rome.''"<ref>[http://papalencyclicals.net/Councils/ecum02.htm#3 Canon iii]</ref> Constantinople was second only to Rome. Many eastern bishops disagreed.

[[Constantinople I|First Council of Constantinople]] 381 convened by the Roman Emperor of the West [[Gratian]] and the Roman Emperor of the East [[Theodosius&nbsp;I]]. Neither the Holy Father Pope Saint [[Damasus I]] or his papal legates attended because of friction between him and the eastern emperor over authority. Already the split between East and West was manifesting itself. 186 bishops did attend, including [[Saint Gregory Nazianzen]] and Saint [[Cyril of Jerusalem]]. Canon 3 of this Council states: "''Because it is new Rome, the bishop of Constantinople is to enjoy the privileges of honor after the bishop of Rome.''"<ref>[http://papalencyclicals.net/Councils/ecum02.htm#3 Canon iii]</ref> Constantinople was second only to Rome. Many eastern bishops disagreed.

====The Third Ecumenical Council====  

====The Third Ecumenical Council====

[[Council of Ephesus]] 431 called by the Roman Emperor of the East Theodosius II, influenced by his saintly sister [[Saint Pulcheria]], in harmony with Pope [[Saint Celestine I]].

[[Council of Ephesus]] 431 called by the Roman Emperor of the East Theodosius II, influenced by his saintly sister [[Saint Pulcheria]], in harmony with Pope [[Saint Celestine I]].

====The Fourth Ecumenical Council====  

====The Fourth Ecumenical Council====

[[Council of Chalcedon]] 451 called by the Roman Emperor of the East [[Marcian]], influenced by his wife Saint Pulcheria, in coordination with Pope [[Saint Leo the Great]].

[[Council of Chalcedon]] 451 called by the Roman Emperor of the East [[Marcian]], influenced by his wife Saint Pulcheria, in coordination with Pope [[Saint Leo the Great]].

====The Fifth Ecumenical Council====  

====The Fifth Ecumenical Council====

[[Constantinople II|Second Council of Constantinople]] 553 summoned by The Emperor [[Justinian]] and Pope [[Vigilius]]. The Roman pontiff refused to take part in the council, because Justinian had summoned bishops in equal numbers from each of the five patriarchal sees, so that there would be many more eastern than western bishops present, and [[Eutychius]], patriarch of Constantinople, presided.  

[[Constantinople II|Second Council of Constantinople]] 553 summoned by The Emperor [[Justinian]] and Pope [[Vigilius]]. The Roman pontiff refused to take part in the council, because Justinian had summoned bishops in equal numbers from each of the five patriarchal sees, so that there would be many more eastern than western bishops present, and [[Eutychius]], patriarch of Constantinople, presided.  

====The Sixth Ecumenical Council====  

====The Sixth Ecumenical Council====

[[Constantinople III|Third Council of Constantinople]] 680-681 called by the Emperor [[Constantine IV]] in agreement with Pope [[Saint Agatho]], in light of the growing threat of [[Islam]]ism. The Council was convened with over 200 bishops.

[[Constantinople III|Third Council of Constantinople]] 680-681 called by the Emperor [[Constantine IV]] in agreement with Pope [[Saint Agatho]], in light of the growing threat of [[Islam]]ism. The Council was convened with over 200 bishops.

====The Seventh Ecumenical Council====  

====The Seventh Ecumenical Council====

[[Nicaea II|Second Council of Nicaea]] 787 was called by the orthodox catholic Christian [[Empress Irene]], widow of the late Emperor Leo IV and mother of the Emperor Constantine IV, to quell the growing violent unrest against those Eastern Bishops who were spreading the heresy of [[Iconoclasm]] supported by [[Emperor Leo III]], who had been fiercely condemned by Pope [[Hadrian I]], as well as by his predecessors Popes [[Gregory II]] and Pope [[Gregory III]].  

[[Nicaea II|Second Council of Nicaea]] 787 was called by the orthodox catholic Christian [[Empress Irene]], widow of the late Emperor Leo IV and mother of the Emperor Constantine IV, to quell the growing violent unrest against those Eastern Bishops who were spreading the heresy of [[Iconoclasm]] supported by [[Emperor Leo III]], who had been fiercely condemned by Pope [[Hadrian I]], as well as by his predecessors Popes [[Gregory II]] and Pope [[Gregory III]].  

====The Eighth Ecumenical Council====  

====The Eighth Ecumenical Council====

[[Constantinople IV|Fourth Council of Constantinople]] 869-870 was called jointly by the [[Emperor Basil]] and Pope [[Hadrian II]] to deal with the paramount issue of declaring the Patriarch [[Photius]] a heretic for openly criticizing clerical [[celibacy]], for challenging Pope Saint Leo III's crowning of [[Charlemagne]] as Holy Roman Emperor on Christmas of 800, and for questioning the ''[[Filioque]]'' of the [[Apostles' Creed]]. This Council is not recognized as legitimate by those churches of the east not in communion with Rome.

[[Constantinople IV|Fourth Council of Constantinople]] 869-870 was called jointly by the [[Emperor Basil]] and Pope [[Hadrian II]] to deal with the paramount issue of declaring the Patriarch [[Photius]] a heretic for openly criticizing clerical [[celibacy]], for challenging Pope Saint Leo III's crowning of [[Charlemagne]] as Holy Roman Emperor on Christmas of 800, and for questioning the ''[[Filioque]]'' of the [[Apostles' Creed]]. This Council is not recognized as legitimate by those churches of the east not in communion with Rome.

===Late Middle Ages: 1000-1500===

===Late Middle Ages: 1000-1500===

The 14th century was the scene of dramatic humiliations that reduced the secular power and religious prestige of the papacy. The French king made his man Pope and moved the papal court to Avignon in France, 1309-1377. During the "Babylonian Captivity" of the papacy, seven French popes were seen as mere tools of France. Avignon was not a holy city, like Rome, and the men there were scarcely concerned with holiness; the papal entourage demanded bribes and fees to deal with terns of thousands of petitions that flooded in. As the paperwork and expenses multiplied and the prestige of the Papacy slipped.<ref>Ullmann (2002) p. 287</ref>  The return to Rome in 1378 was followed by an even greater catastrophe. A split between French and Italian factions in the Curia resulted in the "Great Schism" of 1378-1417, during which Rome and Avignon each had their own series of popes, who claimed legitimacy and authority over the church.  After enormous confusion the decision was made to appeal to a church council. The [[Council of Constance]] healed the schism in 1415.  

The 14th century was the scene of dramatic humiliations that reduced the secular power and religious prestige of the papacy. The French king made his man Pope and moved the papal court to Avignon in France, 1309–1377. During the "Babylonian Captivity" of the papacy, seven French popes were seen as mere tools of France. Avignon was not a holy city, like Rome, and the men there were scarcely concerned with holiness; the papal entourage demanded bribes and fees to deal with terns of thousands of petitions that flooded in. As the paperwork and expenses multiplied and the prestige of the Papacy slipped.<ref>Ullmann (2002) p. 287</ref>  The return to Rome in 1378 was followed by an even greater catastrophe. A split between French and Italian factions in the Curia resulted in the "Great Schism" of 1378–1417, during which Rome and Avignon each had their own series of popes, who claimed legitimacy and authority over the church.  After enormous confusion the decision was made to appeal to a church council. The [[Council of Constance]] healed the schism in 1415.  

The Council issued the decree ''Sacrosancta,'' (April 1415)  asserting that in matters  touching the faith and the unification and reform of the Church, a general council stood above all other authority, including papal.  Another decree ''Frequens,'' (October 1417) tried to set controls on the pope and cardinals  and proposed that a new council meet within five years and be convened regularly every ten years thereafter.  The Church was on the verge of a constritutional revolution that would have shifted power from the pope to the bishops. However the papal forces fought back and by defeating the Council of Basel (1431-1449) regained control.  

The Council issued the decree ''Sacrosancta,'' (April 1415)  asserting that in matters  touching the faith and the unification and reform of the Church, a general council stood above all other authority, including papal.  Another decree ''Frequens,'' (October 1417) tried to set controls on the pope and cardinals  and proposed that a new council meet within five years and be convened regularly every ten years thereafter.  The Church was on the verge of a constritutional revolution that would have shifted power from the pope to the bishops. However the papal forces fought back and by defeating the Council of Basel (1431–1449) regained control.  

It took years to rebuild the neglected infrastructure of the city of Rome.  The papacy never regained the secular power it had lost, and the loosened religious authority allowed an opening for radical reformers such as [[John Wycliffe]] and the Hussites.

It took years to rebuild the neglected infrastructure of the city of Rome.  The papacy never regained the secular power it had lost, and the loosened religious authority allowed an opening for radical reformers such as [[John Wycliffe]] and the Hussites.

====Ultramontane vs Gallican====

====Ultramontane vs Gallican====

The "ultramontane" tendency in the Church centralized more power and authority in the Papacy. It was opposed by the "Gallican" tendency, especially in France, to give national churches more control over their affairs.  The ultramontine forces generally won out, especially with the declaration of papal infallibility at the First Vatican Council in 1870. The ultramontane forces cited the old doctrines of [[Robert Bellarmine]] (1542-1621) and [[Francisco de Suárez]] (1548-1617) to bolster the papal claim to absolute power in spiritual matters.

The "ultramontane" tendency in the Church centralized more power and authority in the Papacy. It was opposed by the "Gallican" tendency, especially in France, to give national churches more control over their affairs.  The ultramontine forces generally won out, especially with the declaration of papal infallibility at the First Vatican Council in 1870. The ultramontane forces cited the old doctrines of [[Robert Bellarmine]] (1542–1621) and [[Francisco de Suárez]] (1548–1617) to bolster the papal claim to absolute power in spiritual matters.

Gallicanism in France was damaged by the rise of ultramontanism in the 1850s and the devotional revolution that shifted [[piety]] to devotions sponsored by Rome. Gallicanism was officially suppressed by the First Vatican Council in 1870, which established the paramount authority of the pope as a matter of dogma. However informal manifestations of Gallicanism continue in some countries, especially China. In Canada, the Irish clergy fought for ultramontanism against the French clergy, who were Gallican. The [[Catholicism in Ireland|Irish]] won out with the support of the Vatican.

Gallicanism in France was damaged by the rise of ultramontanism in the 1850s and the devotional revolution that shifted [[piety]] to devotions sponsored by Rome. Gallicanism was officially suppressed by the First Vatican Council in 1870, which established the paramount authority of the pope as a matter of dogma. However informal manifestations of Gallicanism continue in some countries, especially China. In Canada, the Irish clergy fought for ultramontanism against the French clergy, who were Gallican. The [[Catholicism in Ireland|Irish]] won out with the support of the Vatican.

====Women====

====Women====

Camp (1990) traces the treatment of women. In the late 19th century the papacy began to revise its public teachings about the proper role of women in the Church and society. From Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903) to Pope John Paul II (1978-2005), papal social pronouncements reveal an evolution in attitudes toward a woman's proper "place" from the view that women are passive subordinates to men in all spheres of life to the current teaching that lay and clerical women are equal but complementary partners with men in religious, political, economic, and social endeavors. However, the papacy has remained firm in the conviction that ordination to the priesthood is for men only.

Camp (1990) traces the treatment of women. In the late 19th century the papacy began to revise its public teachings about the proper role of women in the Church and society. From Pope Leo XIII (1878–1903) to Pope John Paul II (1978–2005), papal social pronouncements reveal an evolution in attitudes toward a woman's proper "place" from the view that women are passive subordinates to men in all spheres of life to the current teaching that lay and clerical women are equal but complementary partners with men in religious, political, economic, and social endeavors. However, the papacy has remained firm in the conviction that ordination to the priesthood is for men only.

===Since 1914===

===Since 1914===

====Holocaust issues====

====Holocaust issues====

Coppa (2005) reassesses the attitudes and policies toward Nazi racism of Pope Pius XI (1922-1939). Although Pius XI accepted and practiced religious anti-Judaism, he consistently opposed racial anti-Semitism on theological grounds throughout his papacy. As a result, he resisted the course of accommodation and conciliation favored by others within the Catholic Church, including Eugenio Pacelli (1876-1958), who served as papal secretary of state from 1930 prior to succeeding Pius XI as Pope Pius XII in 1939. Between 1933 and 1939 Pius XI waged a campaign against Nazi and Fascist racism and anti-Semitism that included public speeches and published condemnations denouncing the division of humanity on the basis of race as well as the commission of a "secret" encyclical on the incompatibility of racism and Catholicism that remained unpublished until 1995. His confrontational stance therefore sharply contrasted with the silence of Pope Pius XII during the Holocaust.

Coppa (2005) reassesses the attitudes and policies toward Nazi racism of Pope Pius XI (1922–1939). Although Pius XI accepted and practiced religious anti-Judaism, he consistently opposed racial anti-Semitism on theological grounds throughout his papacy. As a result, he resisted the course of accommodation and conciliation favored by others within the Catholic Church, including Eugenio Pacelli (1876–1958), who served as papal secretary of state from 1930 prior to succeeding Pius XI as Pope Pius XII in 1939. Between 1933 and 1939 Pius XI waged a campaign against Nazi and Fascist racism and anti-Semitism that included public speeches and published condemnations denouncing the division of humanity on the basis of race as well as the commission of a "secret" encyclical on the incompatibility of racism and Catholicism that remained unpublished until 1995. His confrontational stance therefore sharply contrasted with the silence of Pope Pius XII during the Holocaust.

===General summary of history===

===General summary of history===

The Pope has been the head of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] for over 1600 years. The Eastern Orthodox churches reject his claims to primacy. Even more vigorously the Protestant Reformation rejected both Papal claims to primacy and the authority of the Patriarchs of the East. As [[secular]] leaders the Popes controlled Rome and the [[Papal States]] in central Italy until 1870, and especially in the 16th century were notable patrons of the arts, turning St. Peter's Church in Rome into an architectural wonder, especially notable for the artwork in its Sistine Chapel.<ref>Famous patrons of the arts include Sixtus IV (1471-1484), [[Julius II]] (1503-1513), and Clement VII (1523-1534)</ref>

The Pope has been the head of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] for over 1600 years. The Eastern Orthodox churches reject his claims to primacy. Even more vigorously the Protestant Reformation rejected both Papal claims to primacy and the authority of the Patriarchs of the East. As [[secular]] leaders the Popes controlled Rome and the [[Papal States]] in central Italy until 1870, and especially in the 16th century were notable patrons of the arts, turning St. Peter's Church in Rome into an architectural wonder, especially notable for the artwork in its Sistine Chapel.<ref>Famous patrons of the arts include Sixtus IV (1471-1484), [[Julius II]] (1503-1513), and Clement VII (1523-1534)</ref>

Since 1929 the Pope controls only the small Vatican City-state (located inside Rome), but has diplomatic relations with most nations. The Pope's power comes from his appointment of all the bishops in the [[Catholic Church]] (which includes the Roman Catholic Church), and from his ability (since 1870) to proclaim a theological doctrine infallibly. The history of the Popes is interwoven with the history of the Catholic Church and the history of Europe. The 262 Popes were saints and sinners<ref>They were all men. The 15th century story of "[[Pope Joan]]" who disguised herself as a man and became Pope sometime between A.D. 850 and 1050 was exposed as a false myth in 1650, but still circulates. Kelly (1998) 331-32.</ref> who ranged very widely indeed in terms of personalities and morality. In recent centuries most popes have been holy men and in recent decades they have been linguists able to speak to Catholics in many languages. In recent centuries most Popes have been scions of Italian nobility; notable exceptions are Pope John Paul II (1978-2005) the first Polish Pope, Benedict XVI (2005-2013) the first German since 1523, [[Pope Francis]] (2013-2025) from [[Argentina]] the first Pope from either of the American continents and Pope Leo XIV from the United States who also hold the Peruvian nationality.

Since 1929 the Pope controls only the small Vatican City-state (located inside Rome), but has diplomatic relations with most nations. The Pope's power comes from his appointment of all the bishops in the [[Catholic Church]] (which includes the Roman Catholic Church), and from his ability (since 1870) to proclaim a theological doctrine infallibly. The history of the Popes is interwoven with the history of the Catholic Church and the history of Europe. The 262 Popes were saints and sinners<ref>They were all men. The 15th century story of "[[Pope Joan]]" who disguised herself as a man and became Pope sometime between A.D. 850 and 1050 was exposed as a false myth in 1650, but still circulates. Kelly (1998) 331-32.</ref> who ranged very widely indeed in terms of personalities and morality. In recent centuries most popes have been holy men and in recent decades they have been linguists able to speak to Catholics in many languages. In recent centuries most Popes have been scions of Italian nobility; notable exceptions are Pope John Paul II (1978–2005) the first Polish Pope, Benedict XVI (2005–2013) the first German since 1523, [[Pope Francis]] (2013–2025) from [[Argentina]] the first Pope from either of the American continents and Pope Leo XIV from the United States who also hold the Peruvian nationality.

The papacy has become a major factor in world history by promoting the Christian message globally through more extensive missionary work, ecumenical dialogue and increasingly active use of worldwide publishing and broadcast audio/visual media such as the [[Eternal Word Television Network]] (EWTN).

The papacy has become a major factor in world history by promoting the Christian message globally through more extensive missionary work, ecumenical dialogue and increasingly active use of worldwide publishing and broadcast audio/visual media such as the [[Eternal Word Television Network]] (EWTN).

* Logan, F. Donald.  ''A History of the Church in the Middle Ages.'' 2002. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102805754# online edition]

* Logan, F. Donald.  ''A History of the Church in the Middle Ages.'' 2002. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102805754# online edition]

*  Mullett, Michael A. ''The Catholic Reformation,'' (1999), [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102890994 online edition]

*  Mullett, Michael A. ''The Catholic Reformation,'' (1999), [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102890994 online edition]

* Pastor, Ludwig von. ''History of the Popes From the Close of the Middle Ages'', (1894-1930), 16 vol, older Catholic history [https://books.google.com/books?spell=1&lr=&q=pastor+history+popes&as_brr=1 online from books.google.com]

* Pastor, Ludwig von. ''History of the Popes From the Close of the Middle Ages'', (1894–1930), 16 vol, older Catholic history [https://books.google.com/books?spell=1&lr=&q=pastor+history+popes&as_brr=1 online from books.google.com]

* Ullmann, Walter. ''A Short History of the Papacy in the Middle Ages,'' (2002), 393pp, [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107602176 online edition]

* Ullmann, Walter. ''A Short History of the Papacy in the Middle Ages,'' (2002), 393pp, [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107602176 online edition]

* Wright, A. D.  ''The Early Modern Papacy: From the Council of Trent to the French Revolution 1564-1789.'' Longman, 2000. 335 pp.

* Wright, A. D.  ''The Early Modern Papacy: From the Council of Trent to the French Revolution 1564-1789.'' Longman, 2000. 335 pp.