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The [[President of the United States of America|president]] is also commander-in-chief of the military.  He controls its operations, and supervises its conflicts with foreign militaries.  After [[Congress]] declares war (and often when it does not), the [[President of the United States of America|president]] assumes the day-to-day responsibility for conducting that war.  [[President of the United States of America|President]] Lyndon Johnson would personally review and make decisions about daily bombing runs in Vietnam. [[President of the United States of America|President]] Lincoln was hiring, firing, and ordering generals during the Civil War.

The [[President of the United States of America|president]] is also commander-in-chief of the military.  He controls its operations, and supervises its conflicts with foreign militaries.  After [[Congress]] declares war (and often when it does not), the [[President of the United States of America|president]] assumes the day-to-day responsibility for conducting that war.  [[President of the United States of America|President]] Lyndon Johnson would personally review and make decisions about daily bombing runs in Vietnam. [[President of the United States of America|President]] Lincoln was hiring, firing, and ordering generals during the Civil War.

More generally, the [[President of the United States of America|president]] is responsible for all foreign policy.  He appoints the ambassadors, and decides what treaties to negotiate and sign.  But 2/3rd approval by the Senate is required for any treaty to become law.  The North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) established so-called “free trade” between the United States and Mexico and Canada.  [[President of the United States of America|President]] [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] bypassed the requirement of Senate approval by arranging for [[Congress]] to pass the treaty directly into federal law.  Why do you think he did that?  (Answer: it only requires a majority to pass a law rather than 2/3 in the Senate to ratify a treaty).

More generally, the [[President of the United States of America|president]] is responsible for all foreign policy.  He appoints the ambassadors, and decides what treaties to negotiate and sign.  But 2/3rd approval by the [[United States Senate|Senate]] is required for any treaty to become law.  The North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) established so-called “free trade” between the United States and Mexico and Canada.  [[President of the United States of America|President]] [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] bypassed the requirement of [[United States Senate|Senate]] approval by arranging for [[Congress]] to pass the treaty directly into federal law.  Why do you think he did that?  (Answer: it only requires a majority to pass a law rather than 2/3 in the [[United States Senate|Senate]] to ratify a treaty).

The [[President of the United States of America|president]] also has legislative authority in signing or vetoing new laws.  If the [[President of the United States of America|president’s]] political party is in control of [[Congress]], then he has implicit control over its agenda too.  The [[President of the United States of America|president]] typically submits a budget each year for [[Congress]] to pass in order to pay for the operations of the government and all its programs.  Typically [[Congress]] will add spending to that budget and include it in one massive bill for the [[President of the United States of America|president]] to sign.  An attempt to give the [[President of the United States of America|president]] “line-item veto” authority to strike out certain spending items was held to be unconstitutional.

The [[President of the United States of America|president]] also has legislative authority in signing or vetoing new laws.  If the [[President of the United States of America|president’s]] political party is in control of [[Congress]], then he has implicit control over its agenda too.  The [[President of the United States of America|president]] typically submits a budget each year for [[Congress]] to pass in order to pay for the operations of the government and all its programs.  Typically [[Congress]] will add spending to that budget and include it in one massive bill for the [[President of the United States of America|president]] to sign.  An attempt to give the [[President of the United States of America|president]] “line-item veto” authority to strike out certain spending items was held to be unconstitutional.

Today people view the appointment power of the [[President of the United States of America|president]] as his most important authority.  In particular, the [[President of the United States of America|president’s]] ability to fill [[U.S. Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] vacancies and lower federal court positions is the focus of political attention.  The [[President of the United States of America|president]] can usually serve only eight years, but a [[U.S. Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] justice can serve 35 years or more.

Today people view the appointment power of the [[President of the United States of America|president]] as his most important authority.  In particular, the [[President of the United States of America|president’s]] ability to fill [[U.S. Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] vacancies and lower federal court positions is the focus of political attention.  The [[President of the United States of America|president]] can usually serve only eight years, but a [[U.S. Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] justice can serve 35 years or more.

But a vacancy on the [[U.S. Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] must occur before the [[President of the United States of America|president]] can nominate a new justice.  [[President of the United States of America|President]] Carter did not see a single [[U.S. Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] vacancy during his four-year term.  He thus made no appointments.  [[President of the United States of America|President]] [[Ronald Wilson Reagan|Reagan]] saw three vacancies, and he appointed Justices O’Connor, Scalia and Kennedy.  Instead of Justice Kennedy, [[President of the United States of America|President]] [[Ronald Wilson Reagan|Reagan]] initially appointed Robert Bork, who was defeated by the Senate.  A majority vote in the Senate is necessary to confirm a federal judge to the [[U.S. Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] or lower court.  [[President of the United States of America|President]] [[Ronald Wilson Reagan|Reagan]] also elevated Justice Rehnquist to become Chief Justice when Chief Justice Warren Burger retired, and that promotion was approved by the Senate after some heated debate.

But a vacancy on the [[U.S. Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] must occur before the [[President of the United States of America|president]] can nominate a new justice.  [[President of the United States of America|President]] Carter did not see a single [[U.S. Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] vacancy during his four-year term.  He thus made no appointments.  [[President of the United States of America|President]] [[Ronald Wilson Reagan|Reagan]] saw three vacancies, and he appointed Justices O’Connor, Scalia and Kennedy.  Instead of Justice Kennedy, [[President of the United States of America|President]] [[Ronald Wilson Reagan|Reagan]] initially appointed Robert Bork, who was defeated by the [[United States Senate|Senate]].  A majority vote in the [[United States Senate|Senate]] is necessary to confirm a federal judge to the [[U.S. Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] or lower court.  [[President of the United States of America|President]] [[Ronald Wilson Reagan|Reagan]] also elevated Justice Rehnquist to become Chief Justice when Chief Justice Warren Burger retired, and that promotion was approved by the [[United States Senate|Senate]] after some heated debate.

The Senate’s defeat of [[Ronald Wilson Reagan|Reagan’s]] nomination of Robert Bork to the [[U.S. Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] in 1987 was a watershed, because it was purely political.  A majority of senators felt Bork was too conservative, and the attacks and ultimate rejection of his nomination became known as “Borking” a presidential pick.  He later wrote a popular book describing the politicization of the judiciary.

The [[United States Senate|Senate’s]] defeat of [[Ronald Wilson Reagan|Reagan’s]] nomination of Robert Bork to the [[U.S. Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] in 1987 was a watershed, because it was purely political.  A majority of senators felt Bork was too conservative, and the attacks and ultimate rejection of his nomination became known as “Borking” a presidential pick.  He later wrote a popular book describing the politicization of the judiciary.

[[President of the United States of America|President]] Bush will likely complete his current term without picking a single [[U.S. Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] justice.  This is surprising because several vacancies were expected.  Chief Justice Rehnquist in particular, nearly 80 years old, was expected to step down so that a Republican [[President of the United States of America|president]] could choose his replacement.  It is possible that [[President of the United States of America|President]] Bush talked him out of retiring in the hopes that Republicans will have greater power in the Senate after the 2004 elections, and that Bush will still be in power.  This is risky: libreal Justices Brennan and Marshall decided against retiring during [[President of the United States of America|President]] Carter’s term, but then faced 12 long years of Republican control of the White House.  Old age forced Justices Brennan and Marshall reluctantly to retire in the meantime, during the first [[President of the United States of America|President]] Bush’s term, and their spots were filled by Justices Souter and Thomas.

[[President of the United States of America|President]] Bush will likely complete his current term without picking a single [[U.S. Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] justice.  This is surprising because several vacancies were expected.  Chief Justice Rehnquist in particular, nearly 80 years old, was expected to step down so that a Republican [[President of the United States of America|president]] could choose his replacement.  It is possible that [[President of the United States of America|President]] Bush talked him out of retiring in the hopes that Republicans will have greater power in the [[United States Senate|Senate]] after the 2004 elections, and that Bush will still be in power.  This is risky: libreal Justices Brennan and Marshall decided against retiring during [[President of the United States of America|President]] Carter’s term, but then faced 12 long years of Republican control of the White House.  Old age forced Justices Brennan and Marshall reluctantly to retire in the meantime, during the first [[President of the United States of America|President]] Bush’s term, and their spots were filled by Justices Souter and Thomas.

'''III. Leader of the Executive Branch'''

'''III. Leader of the Executive Branch'''

The [[President of the United States of America|president]] has complete control over his executive branch, and fills thousands of positions in the numerous federal agencies.  Senate approval is required only for a few top positions, such as the Cabinet officials who directly advise the [[President of the United States of America|president]].

The [[President of the United States of America|president]] has complete control over his executive branch, and fills thousands of positions in the numerous federal agencies.  [[United States Senate|Senate]] approval is required only for a few top positions, such as the Cabinet officials who directly advise the [[President of the United States of America|president]].

When George Washington was [[President of the United States of America|president]], there were only three Cabinet officials: State, War (now Defense), and Treasury.  As the federal government has expanded, so have the number of positions.  [[President of the United States of America|President]] Bush has 15 Cabinet officials.  Senate confirmation was required for all of them.  Typically the [[President of the United States of America|president]] fills these positions with members of his own party, often those who were recently defeated for Senate, or former governors.

When George Washington was [[President of the United States of America|president]], there were only three Cabinet officials: State, War (now Defense), and Treasury.  As the federal government has expanded, so have the number of positions.  [[President of the United States of America|President]] Bush has 15 Cabinet officials.  [[United States Senate|Senate]] confirmation was required for all of them.  Typically the [[President of the United States of America|president]] fills these positions with members of his own party, often those who were recently defeated for [[United States Senate|Senate]], or former governors.

How many of [[President of the United States of America|President]] Bush’s Cabinet members can you name?  How many departments under the [[President of the United States of America|president]] can you name?

How many of [[President of the United States of America|President]] Bush’s Cabinet members can you name?  How many departments under the [[President of the United States of America|president]] can you name?

'''V. Department of Justice'''

'''V. Department of Justice'''

Much attention these days is focused on the fourth oldest department: the Department of Justice.  Its head, Attorney General John Ashcroft, was bitterly opposed by liberals from the beginning.  The Senate delayed his confirmation and he won in a relatively close vote in early 2001, after Bush became [[President of the United States of America|president]] and appointed him.

Much attention these days is focused on the fourth oldest department: the Department of Justice.  Its head, Attorney General John Ashcroft, was bitterly opposed by liberals from the beginning.  The [[United States Senate|Senate]] delayed his confirmation and he won in a relatively close vote in early 2001, after Bush became [[President of the United States of America|president]] and appointed him.

The Department of Justice is responsible for handling all prosecutions and litigation for the federal government.  Originally, the federal government prosecuted very few crimes.  Treason was one.  Counterfeiting was another.  But not much more.

The Department of Justice is responsible for handling all prosecutions and litigation for the federal government.  Originally, the federal government prosecuted very few crimes.  Treason was one.  Counterfeiting was another.  But not much more.