Changes

==The Presidency of John Adams==

==The Presidency of John Adams==

[[John Adams]], born to a prosperous farmer in Massachusetts, became the second president of the United States after George Washington, who was a "tough act to follow" (i.e., no one could be as respected as Washington was).  John Adams was elected president as the Federalist Party's candidate in 1796, and served from 1797-1801.   

[[John Adams]], born to a prosperous farmer in Massachusetts, became the second President of the United States after George Washington, who was a "tough act to follow" (i.e., no one could be as respected as Washington was).  John Adams was elected president as the Federalist Party's candidate in 1796, and served from 1797-1801.   

He served just one term (four years) and his presidency was a failure due primarily to foreign policy humiliations.  The problem was that no one in Europe respected this new country called the United States, and Adams had to deal with that lack of respect.  For example, in 1798 there was the "XYZ Affair," in which American diplomats went to France to demand an end to French attacks on American ships.  Instead of being received in a dignified manner, three French agents referred to anonymously as "XYZ" demanded that a bribe be given to them in order to consider the American request.  News of this demand for a bribe reached the United States and it was humiliating.

He served only one term (four years) and his presidency was a failure due primarily to foreign policy humiliations.  The problem was that no one in Europe respected this new country called the United States, and Adams had to deal with that lack of respect.  For example, in 1798 there was the "XYZ Affair," in which American diplomats went to France to demand an end to French attacks on American ships.  Instead of being received in a dignified manner, three French agents (referred to anonymously as "XYZ") demanded that a bribe be given to them in order to consider the American request.  News of this demand for a bribe reached the United States and it was humiliating to the young country.

Adams did not handle the criticism of him well.  Recall that he was from Puritan Massachusetts, where it was customary to exclude or even hang someone who challenged authority.  Adams' reaction to unfavorable statements about him was to sign the Alien & Sedition Acts, which made it a crime to criticize him!

Adams did not handle the criticism of him well.  Recall that he was from Puritan Massachusetts, where it was customary to exclude or even hang someone who challenged authority.  Adams' reaction to unfavorable statements about him was to sign the Alien & Sedition Acts, which made it a crime to criticize him!

Actually, it was more complex that than.  The Federalist Party, which Adams led, wanted to censor and weaken the opposition party, known as the Democratic-Republican Party.  The Alien & Sedition Acts were designed to weaken the Republican Party, which had [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]] as its leaders.  The Alien Act gave the president the power to expel aliens (immigrants) from the country, and the Sedition Act made it a crime to impede any law or utter criticism of high government officials like Adams.  The Sedition Act was obviously unconstitutional under the First Amendment protection of free speech, at least by today's standards.

Actually, it was more complex than that.  The Federalist Party, which Adams led, wanted to censor and weaken the opposition party, known as the Democratic-Republican Party.  The Alien & Sedition Acts were designed to weaken the Republican Party, which had [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]] as its leaders.  The Alien Act gave the president the power to expel aliens (immigrants) from the country, and the Sedition Act made it a crime to impede any law or utter criticism of high government officials like Adams.  The Sedition Act was obviously unconstitutional under the First Amendment protection of free speech, at least by today's standards.

Jefferson and Madison responded by drafting strong state resolutions (Kentucky and Virginia, respectively) to "nullify" or declare the Acts unconstitutional, viewing the act primarily as an attack on their Democratic-Republican party by Adams' Federalists.  They invoked state sovereignty, claiming that a state does not have to obey an unconstitutional federal law.  This unintentionally provided a basis for states in the South later to try to "nullify" other federal laws, leading to the Civil War.

Jefferson and Madison responded by drafting strong state resolutions (Kentucky and Virginia, respectively) to "nullify" or declare the Acts unconstitutional, viewing the act primarily as an attack on their Democratic-Republican party by Adams' Federalists.  They invoked state sovereignty, claiming that a state does not have to obey an unconstitutional federal law.  This unintentionally provided a basis for states in the South later to try to "nullify" other federal laws, leading to the Civil War.