Changes

===Coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire===

===Coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire===

 

Despite the failures in Egypt, Napoleon returned to a hero's welcome. In alliance with the director [[Emmanuel Sieyès]] and his brother, [[Lucien Bonaparte]], president of the council of five hundred, he overthrew the Directory by a coup d'etat on November 9, 1799 ("the 18th Brumaire" according to the revolutionary calendar), and closed down the council of five hundred.  Napoleon became "first consul" for ten years, with two consuls appointed by him who had consultative voices only. His power was confirmed by the new constitution ("Constitution of the year VIII"), originally devised by Sieyès to give Napoleon a minor role, but rewritten by Napoleon, and accepted by direct popular vote (3,000,000 in favor, 1,567 opposed). The constitution preserved the appearance of a [[republic]] but in reality established a military dictatorship. The days of Brumaire sounded the end of the short-lived republic: no more representative government, assemblies, a collegian executive, or liberty.<ref> Furet (1996) p 212</ref>

Despite the failures in Egypt, Napoleon returned to a hero's welcome. In alliance with the director [[Emmanuel Sieyès]] and his brother, [[Lucien Bonaparte]], president of the council of five hundred, he overthrew the Directory by a coup d'etat on November 9, 1799 ("the 18th Brumaire" according to the revolutionary calendar), and closed down the council of five hundred.  Napoleon became "first consul" for ten years, with two consuls appointed by him who had consultative voices only. His power was confirmed by the new constitution ("Constitution of the year VIII"), originally devised by Sieyès to give Napoleon a minor role, but rewritten by Napoleon, and accepted by direct popular vote (3,000,000 in favor, 1,567 opposed). The constitution preserved the appearance of a [[republic]] but in reality established a military dictatorship. The days of Brumaire sounded the end of the short-lived republic: no more representative government, assemblies, a collegian executive, or liberty.<ref> Furet (1996) p 212</ref>

==Military action to 1812==

==Military action to 1812==

Napoleon's basic military strategy was to identify and defeat the enemy's main force. The goal was to break the enemy's will to resist so that favorable negotiations followed; the conquest of territory was won in negotiations. "I see only one thing," Napoleon explained in 1797, "namely the enemy's main body. I try to crush it, confident that secondary matters will then settle themselves."<ref> Maximilian Yorck von Wartenburg, [http://books.google.com/books?id=CWwPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA39&dq=%22confident+that+secondary+matters+will+then+settle+%22&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 ''Napoleon as a General'' (1902) p. 39]</ref>  

Napoleon's basic military strategy was to identify and defeat the enemy's main force. The goal was to break the enemy's will to resist so that favorable negotiations followed; the conquest of territory was won in negotiations. "I see only one thing," Napoleon explained in 1797, "namely the enemy's main body. I try to crush it, confident that secondary matters will then settle themselves."<ref> Maximilian Yorck von Wartenburg, [http://books.google.com/books?id=CWwPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA39&dq=%22confident+that+secondary+matters+will+then+settle+%22&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 ''Napoleon as a General'' (1902) p. 39]</ref>  

The increased importance of artillery after 1807 stemmed from Napoleon's creation of a highly mobile artillery force, the growth in artillery numbers, and changes in artillery practices. As a result of these factors, Napoleon, rather than relying on infantry to wear away the enemy's defenses, now could use massed artillery as a spearhead to pound a break in the enemy's line that was then exploited by supporting infantry and cavalry.<ref> Bruce McConachy, "The Roots of Artillery Doctrine: Napoleonic Artillery Tactics Reconsidered." ''Journal of Military History'' 2001 65(3): 617-640. Issn: 0899-3718 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718(200107)65%3A3%3C617%3ATROADN%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z in Jstor]. McConachy rejects the alternative theory that growing reliance on artillery by the French army beginning in 1807 was an outgrowth of the declining quality of the French infantry and, later, France's inferiority in cavalry numbers.  </ref>

The increased importance of artillery after 1807 stemmed from Napoleon's creation of a highly mobile artillery force, the growth in artillery numbers, and changes in artillery practices. As a result of these factors, Napoleon, rather than relying on infantry to wear away the enemy's defenses, now could use massed artillery as a spearhead to pound a break in the enemy's line that was then exploited by supporting infantry and cavalry.<ref> Bruce McConachy, "The Roots of Artillery Doctrine: Napoleonic Artillery Tactics Reconsidered." ''Journal of Military History'' 2001 65(3): 617-640. Issn: 0899-3718 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0899-3718(200107)65%3A3%3C617%3ATROADN%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z in Jstor]. McConachy rejects the alternative theory that growing reliance on artillery by the French army beginning in 1807 was an outgrowth of the declining quality of the French infantry and, later, France's inferiority in cavalry numbers.  </ref>

===Russia to 1812===

===Russia to 1812===

===The Polish issue===

===The Polish issue===

Napoleon's decisive defeat came at the [[Leipzig, Battle of|Battle of Leipzig]], called "the battle of nations" in October 1813. Napoleon's 180,000 French and Saxon and Württemberg troops were overwhelmed by 320,000 Allies, comprising  Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies.  It was the biggest battle to date in European history, with 100,000 to 120,000 killed, wounded or captured on both sides.<ref>Chandler, ''Campaigns of Napoleon'' ch 80 </ref> Napoleon managed to escape to France with a portion of his army, but the disaster was almost as great as that in Russia in 1812 and even more irreparable; all the German states now joined the Allies, the Dutch expelled the French, and Denmark was forced to accept terms.  In early January, 1814, 200,000 Allied troops invaded France. Napoleon scored some small victories but the Allies took Paris on March 31, his government declared him deposed, and his marshals deserted him. Napoleon abdicated and was sent into exile at Elba (an island north of Rome), as the old monarchy was brought back to France.  The French army, now controlled by [[Louis XVIII]] numbered 460,000 men, but most were still loyal to Napoleon.

Napoleon's decisive defeat came at the [[Leipzig, Battle of|Battle of Leipzig]], called "the battle of nations" in October 1813. Napoleon's 180,000 French and Saxon and Württemberg troops were overwhelmed by 320,000 Allies, comprising  Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies.  It was the biggest battle to date in European history, with 100,000 to 120,000 killed, wounded or captured on both sides.<ref>Chandler, ''Campaigns of Napoleon'' ch 80 </ref> Napoleon managed to escape to France with a portion of his army, but the disaster was almost as great as that in Russia in 1812 and even more irreparable; all the German states now joined the Allies, the Dutch expelled the French, and Denmark was forced to accept terms.  In early January, 1814, 200,000 Allied troops invaded France. Napoleon scored some small victories but the Allies took Paris on March 31, his government declared him deposed, and his marshals deserted him. Napoleon abdicated and was sent into exile at Elba (an island north of Rome), as the old monarchy was brought back to France.  The French army, now controlled by [[Louis XVIII]] numbered 460,000 men, but most were still loyal to Napoleon.

===100 Days to Waterloo, 1815===

===100 Days to Waterloo, 1815===

In March 1815, Napoleon secretly landed in France and rallied his supporters. They flocked to his cause as the French royal officials lost control; Napoleon entered Paris in triumph and raised new armies.   

In March 1815, Napoleon secretly landed in France and rallied his supporters. They flocked to his cause as the French royal officials lost control; Napoleon entered Paris in triumph and raised new armies.   

[[Image:1815waterloo.jpg|thumb|375px]]

[[Image:1815waterloo.jpg|thumb|375px]]

The Allies, meeting at a peace conference in [[Vienna]], sent a million soldiers to stop him.  The largest contingents was a multinational force under the command of the Briton, the [[Duke of Wellington]]. Napoleon defeated the German army under Blücher at Ligny but had to turn and stop Wellington before he merged forces with Blücher.  At a very hard and closely fought battle of [[Waterloo, Battle of|Waterloo]] on June 18, 1815, Blücher arrived at the last moment and Napoleon was finally and totally defeated. He surrendered to the British who sent him in exile to the remote island of St. Helena in the south Atlantic, where he died a prisoner in 1821.  His relatives lost their royal positions; his imperial army, and particularly the legendary Imperial Guard, were disbanded, and Europe entered an era of peace.

The Allies, meeting at a peace conference in [[Vienna]], sent a million soldiers to stop him.  The largest contingents was a multinational force under the command of the Briton, the [[Duke of Wellington]]. Napoleon defeated the German army under Blücher at Ligny but had to turn and stop Wellington before he merged forces with Blücher.  At a very hard and closely fought battle of [[Waterloo, Battle of|Waterloo]] on June 18, 1815, Blücher arrived at the last moment and Napoleon was finally and totally defeated. He surrendered to the British who sent him in exile to the remote island of St. Helena in the south Atlantic, where he died a prisoner in 1821.  His relatives lost their royal positions; his imperial army, and particularly the legendary Imperial Guard, were disbanded, and Europe entered an era of peace.

<blockquote>"[[Alexander]], [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]], [[Charlemagne]], and myself founded empires; but what foundation did we rest the creations of our genius? Upon force. [[Jesus Christ]] founded an empire upon love; and at this hour millions of men would die for Him."<ref>http://www.quotedb.com/quotes/2505</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>"[[Alexander]], [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]], [[Charlemagne]], and myself founded empires; but what foundation did we rest the creations of our genius? Upon force. [[Jesus Christ]] founded an empire upon love; and at this hour millions of men would die for Him."<ref>http://www.quotedb.com/quotes/2505</ref></blockquote>

[[Image:David-Napoleon I.jpg|right|thumb|The Coronation of Napoleon in Notre Dame by J. L. David]]

[[Image:David-Napoleon I.jpg|right|thumb|The Coronation of Napoleon in Notre Dame by J. L. David]]

==Propaganda and memory ==

==Propaganda and memory ==

[[Category:Napoleonic Wars]]

[[Category:Napoleonic Wars]]

[[Category:French People]]

[[Category:French People]]