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The '''Embargo of 1807''' and the subsequent '''Nonintercourse Acts''' were American laws restricting  American ships from engaging in foreign trade 1807 and 1812. They failed, and led to the [[War of 1812]] between the U.S. and Britain.

The '''Embargo of 1807''' and the subsequent '''Nonintercourse Acts''' were American laws restricting  American ships from engaging in foreign trade 1807 and 1812. They failed, and led to the [[War of 1812]] between the U.S. and Britain.

Britain and France were engaged in a life-and-death struggle for control of Europe, and the small, remote U.S.A. became a pawn in their game.  The Acts were diplomatic respones by presidents [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James madison]] designed to protect American interests and avoid war.  They failed, and helped cause the war. The Acts were bitterly opposed by New England shipping interests which suffered greatly from them.

Britain and France were engaged in a life-and-death struggle for control of Europe, and the small, remote U.S.A. became a pawn in their game.  The Acts were diplomatic respones by presidents [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]] designed to protect American interests and avoid war.  They failed, and helped cause the war. The Acts were bitterly opposed by New England shipping interests which suffered greatly from them.

After a short truce the European wars resumed and contuinued until the defeat of Napoleon in 1814. (He returned for 100 days in 1815 but that had no bearing on the U.S.) The war caused U.S. relations with both England and France to deteriorate rapidly. There was grave risk of war with one or the other. With England supreme on the sea, and France on the land, the war developed into a struggle of blockade and counterblockade. This commercial war peaked in 1806 and 1807. The British Royal Navy shut down most European harbors to American ships unless they first traded through British ports. France declared a paper blockade of Britain (which it lacked a navy to enforce) and seized American ships that obeyed British regulations.

After a short truce the European wars resumed and contuinued until the defeat of Napoleon in 1814. (He returned for 100 days in 1815 but that had no bearing on the U.S.) The war caused U.S. relations with both England and France to deteriorate rapidly. There was grave risk of war with one or the other. With England supreme on the sea, and France on the land, the war developed into a struggle of blockade and counterblockade. This commercial war peaked in 1806 and 1807. The British Royal Navy shut down most European harbors to American ships unless they first traded through British ports. France declared a paper blockade of Britain (which it lacked a navy to enforce) and seized American ships that obeyed British regulations.

Jefferson placed himself in a strange position with his Embargo policy. Though he had so frequently and eloquently argued for as little government intervention as possible, he now found himself assuming extraordinary powers in an attempt to enforce his policy. The presidential election of 1808, in which Republican [[James Madison]] defeated Federalist [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]] showed that the [[Federalist Party]] was regaining strength, and helped to convince Jefferson and Madison that the Embargo would have to be ended.

Jefferson placed himself in a strange position with his Embargo policy. Though he had so frequently and eloquently argued for as little government intervention as possible, he now found himself assuming extraordinary powers in an attempt to enforce his policy. The presidential election of 1808, in which Republican [[James Madison]] defeated Federalist [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]] showed that the [[Federalist Party]] was regaining strength, and helped to convince Jefferson and Madison that the Embargo would have to be ended.

As Jefferson was leaving office, in March 1809, he signed the repeal of the disastrous Embargo. In its place the Nonintercourse Act, was enacted, on March 1, which opened American trade with all countries except England, France, and their possessions. Madison was given the power to suspend nonintercourse with either England or France should one of these countries remove her regulations against American commerce. The Nonintercourse Act proved no more effective than the Embargo, and it proved impossible to prevent American vessels from trading with the European belligerents once they had left American ports.

 

Congress repealed the Act three days before Jefferson left office, replacing it with the '''Non-Intercourse Act''' on March 1, 1809, which lifted all embargoes except for those on Britain and France. It opened American trade with all countries except Britain, France, and their colonies. The president was given the power to suspend nonintercourse with either Britain or France should one of these countries remove her regulations against American commerce. The Nonintercourse Act proved no more effective than the Embargo, and it proved impossible to prevent American vessels from trading with the European belligerents once they had left American ports. The Non-Intercourse Act was replaced in 1810 with '''Macon's Bill Number 2''', which ended all embargoes. Congress realized the failure of the "stick" (American economic pressure) to coerce the European powers. Trade with both Briatin and France was now thrown open, but the United States offered a "carrot": If either power would remove her restrictions on American commerce, the U.S. would reapply nonintercourse against the power that had not so acted.  

By the early 1810 Madison was ready to try yet another method of peaceful coercion, in the desperate measure know as Macon's Bill No. 2. It became law on May 1, 1810, and replaced the Nonintercourse Act. Congress realized the failure of American economic pressure to coerce the European powers. Trade with both England and France was now thrown open, and the United States attempted to bargain with the two belligerents. If either power would remove her restrictions on American commerce, the United States would reapply nonintercourse against the power that had not so acted.  

Napoleon quickly took advantage of this opportunity and tricked the Americans. He promised that his Berlin and Milan Decrees would be repealed, and Madison reinstituted nonintercourse against Britain in the fall of 1810. Though Napoleon did not fulfill his promise, strained Anglo-American relations prevented his being brought to task for his duplicity.  

Napoleon quickly took advantage of this opportunity and tricked the Americans. He promised that his Berlin and Milan Decrees would be repealed, and Madison reinstituted nonintercourse against Britain in the fall of 1810. Though Napoleon did not fulfill his promise, strained Anglo-American relations prevented his being brought to task for his duplicity.  

Too late, the British in June 1812 promised to repeal the Orders in Council, but the concession came too too late, for by the time the news reached America the United States had already declared war against Britain and the [[War of 1812]] was underway.

Too late, the British in June 1812 promised to repeal its Orders in Council, but the concession came too too late, for by the time the news reached America the United States had already declared war against Britain and the [[War of 1812]] was underway.

==Case studies==

==Case studies==

Gordinier (2001) concludes the versatile merchants sought alternative strategies for their commerce, and to a lesser extent, for their navigation. They tried extra-legal activities, a reduction in the size of the foreign fleet, and the re-documentation of foreign trading vessels into domestic carriage. Most importantly, they sought new domestic trading partners, and took advantage of the political power of Jedidiah Huntington, the Custom Collector. Huntington was an influential member of the Connecticut leadership class (called "the Standing Order");  he allowed scores of embargoed vessels to depart for foreign ports under the guise of "special permission."  Old modes of sharing vessel ownership in order to share the risk proved to be hard to modify. Instead established relationships continued through the embargo crisis, in spite of numerous bankruptcies.<ref>  Gordinier (2001)</ref>

Gordinier (2001) concludes the versatile merchants sought alternative strategies for their commerce, and to a lesser extent, for their navigation. They tried extra-legal activities, a reduction in the size of the foreign fleet, and the re-documentation of foreign trading vessels into domestic carriage. Most importantly, they sought new domestic trading partners, and took advantage of the political power of Jedidiah Huntington, the Custom Collector. Huntington was an influential member of the Connecticut leadership class (called "the Standing Order");  he allowed scores of embargoed vessels to depart for foreign ports under the guise of "special permission."  Old modes of sharing vessel ownership in order to share the risk proved to be hard to modify. Instead established relationships continued through the embargo crisis, in spite of numerous bankruptcies.<ref>  Gordinier (2001)</ref>

 

==See also==

==Repeal 1809==

* [[War of 1812]]

Congress repealed the Act three days before Jefferson left office, replacing it with the [[Non-Intercourse Act]] on March 1, 1809, which lifted all embargoes except for those on Britain and France. This act was just as ineffective as the Embargo Act itself and was replaced again the following year with [[Macon's Bill Number 2]], lifting the remaining embargoes.  Contemporaries and historians have usually considered the embargo a failure<ref> But see Frankel (1982)</ref> which hurt Americans and did not accomplish its goals, but helped lead to the [[War of 1812]].

==Bibliography==

==Bibliography==