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[[Image:FtMcHenry.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Fort McHenry today, flying a replica of the "Star Spangled Banner" that flew over the fort on September 13, 1814]]

[[Image:FtMcHenry.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Fort McHenry today, flying a replica of the "Star Spangled Banner" that flew over the fort on September 13, 1814]]

The '''War of 1812''' was a war declared by the United States against Great Britain (and its Empire), lasting from June 18, 1812 to February 18, 1815. The causes involved American grievances against Britain for suppressing American trade, impressing (seizing) sailors with U.S. papers, and inciting hostile Indian raids in the west. Britain, tied down by a much larger war with Napoleon's France, acted too late diplomatically to head off the conflict.  The war followed a series of failed efforts by the U.S. to use economic pressure through the [[Embargo of 1807]].

The '''War of 1812''' was a war declared by the United States against Great Britain (and its Empire), lasting from June 18, 1812 to February 18, 1815. The causes involved American grievances against Britain for suppressing American trade, impressing (seizing) sailors with U.S. papers, and inciting hostile Indian raids in the west. Britain, tied down by a much larger war with Napoleon's France, acted too late diplomatically to head off the conflict.  The war followed a series of failed efforts by the U.S. to use economic pressure through the [[Embargo of 1807]].

The fighting at sea was characterized by a tight British blockade that shut down most American shipping, together with some dramatic naval battles. On land the war was a draw characterized by a series of invasions launched by the U.S. against Canada, and by the British against Washington, New York state, and New Orleans. All the invasions were abject failures. By late 1814, with France  and the Indian tribes apparently defeated, the causes for the war had largely vanished, and a treaty was agreed to that left the prewar boundaries unchanged.  Although the war was a draw, Americans celebrated a great victory--many called it their Second War of Independence-- and acclaimed General [[Andrew Jackson]] a national hero for his decisive victory at New Orleans. In Canada, anti-American and pro-British elements celebrated the repulse of an American invasion.  British had to deal with Napoleon's return and largely ignored the war.

The fighting at sea was characterized by a tight British blockade that shut down most American shipping, together with some dramatic naval battles. On land the war was a draw characterized by a series of invasions launched by the U.S. against Canada, and by the British against Washington, New York state, and New Orleans. All the invasions were abject failures. By late 1814, with France  and the Indian tribes apparently defeated, the causes for the war had largely vanished, and a treaty was agreed to that left the prewar boundaries unchanged.  Although the war was a draw, Americans celebrated a great victory--many called it their Second War of Independence-- and acclaimed General [[Andrew Jackson]] a national hero for his decisive victory at New Orleans. In Canada, anti-American and pro-British elements celebrated the repulse of an American invasion.  British had to deal with Napoleon's return and largely ignored the war.

==Origins==

==Origins==

With Britain engaged in a life-and-death war with France, the efforts of a small country like the U.S. to remain neutral were futile. The British Royal Navy controlled the seas and stopped American shipments headed to France. Worse, the Royal Navy, needing more men, boarded American merchant ships and "impressed" (seized) 6000 sailors who were American citizens but had been born in Britain. Finally Americans were convinced that the British were using their base in western Canada to supply and encourage Indian raids on American frontier settlements.  

With Britain engaged in a life-and-death war with France, the efforts of a small country like the U.S. to remain neutral were futile. The British Royal Navy controlled the seas and stopped American shipments headed to France. Worse, the Royal Navy, needing more men, boarded American merchant ships and "impressed" (seized) 6000 sailors who were American citizens but had been born in Britain. Finally Americans were convinced that the British were using their base in western Canada to supply and encourage Indian raids on American frontier settlements.  

When a British warship in June 1807 attacked and disabled [[USS Chesapeake|USS ''Chesapeake'']],  and impressed several crewmen, a general wave of indignation rose in which even the maritime interests joined. This was an insult to the flag, but President [[Thomas Jefferson]] decided against war and instead tried to punish Britain by cutting off American trade. This annoyed the British some but outraged New England, where shipping was shut down and the economy badly hurt.<ref> New England started to industrialize to rebuild its economy.</ref>  

When a British warship in June 1807 attacked and disabled [[USS Chesapeake|USS ''Chesapeake'']],  and impressed several crewmen, a general wave of indignation rose in which even the maritime interests joined. This was an insult to the flag, but President [[Thomas Jefferson]] decided against war and instead tried to punish Britain by cutting off American trade. This annoyed the British some but outraged New England, where shipping was shut down and the economy badly hurt.<ref> New England started to industrialize to rebuild its economy.</ref>  

In the South and west, "war hawks," led by young Republicans such as [[Henry Clay]] and [[John C. Calhoun]], demanded war.  

In the South and west, "war hawks," led by young Republicans such as [[Henry Clay]] and [[John C. Calhoun]], demanded war. President [[James Madison]] tried to negotiate. Congress passed "Macon's Bill #2" in 1810 that promised if Britain or France allowed American shipping, the U.S. would put an embargo on the other country. [[Napoleon]] tricked the U.S. into believing, falsely, that France had dropped its restrictions.  Madison then slapped an embargo on trade to Britain (which was by far the largest trading partner of the U.S.).  The British failed to act quickly, and by the time London dropped its restrictions, the U.S. had reached the point of no return. In June 1812, the main cause of the war for the U.S. was defined as the need to protect republican values against British imperialism.  Madison sent a war message to Congress on June 1 listing all the complaints against Britain and asking for a declaration of war. With New England vehemently opposed, Congress declared war on June 18.

===Myths of the origins===

===Myths of the origins===

Many Canadians falsely believe that a main cause of the war was American expansionism or desire for Canadian land. The topic was much discussed among historians before 1940, but is rarely cited by experts any more.<ref> it was refuted by [http://www.jstor.org/pss/1896211 Warren H. Goodman, "The Origins of the War of 1812: A Survey of Changing Interpretations," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'', v 28 (September, 1941), 171-86. in JSTOR].</ref> The myth was propounded after the war by pro-British Canadians who tried to incite anti-Americanism.<ref> W. Arthur Bowler, "Propaganda in Upper Canada in the War of 1812," ''American Review of Canadian Studies'' (1988) 28:11-32; C.P. Stacey, "The War of 1812 in Canadian History" in Morris Zaslow and Wesley B. Turner, eds. ''The Defended Border: Upper Canada and the War of 1812'' (Toronto, 1964)</ref>

Many Canadians falsely believe that a main cause of the war was American expansionism or desire for Canadian land. The topic was much discussed among historians before 1940, but is rarely cited by experts any more.<ref> it was refuted by [http://www.jstor.org/pss/1896211 Warren H. Goodman, "The Origins of the War of 1812: A Survey of Changing Interpretations," ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'', v 28 (September, 1941), 171-86. in JSTOR].</ref> The myth was propounded after the war by pro-British Canadians who tried to incite anti-Americanism.<ref> W. Arthur Bowler, "Propaganda in Upper Canada in the War of 1812," ''American Review of Canadian Studies'' (1988) 28:11-32; C.P. Stacey, "The War of 1812 in Canadian History" in Morris Zaslow and Wesley B. Turner, eds. ''The Defended Border: Upper Canada and the War of 1812'' (Toronto, 1964)</ref>

==The Strategic Pattern==

==The Strategic Pattern==

The fundamental military strategy of the United States was simple enough. The primary undertaking would be the conquest of Canada. The United States also planned an immediate naval offensive, whereby a swarm of privateers and the small Navy would be set loose on the high seas to destroy British commerce. The old invasion route into Canada by way of Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River led directly to the most populous and most important part of the enemy’s territory. The capture of Montreal would cut the line of communications upon which the British defense of Upper Canada depended, making the fall of that province inevitable. But this invasion route was near the center of disaffection in the United States from which little local support could be expected. The places where enthusiasm for the war ran high and where the Canadian forces were weak offered a safer theater of operations, though one with fewer strategic opportunities. Thus, in violation of the principles of objective and economy of force, the first assaults were delivered across the Detroit River and across the Niagara River between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario rather than along the Hudson–Lake Champlain–Montreal line of advance.  

The fundamental military strategy of the United States was simple enough. The primary undertaking would be the conquest of Canada. The United States also planned an immediate naval offensive, whereby a swarm of privateers and the small Navy would be set loose on the high seas to destroy British commerce. The old invasion route into Canada by way of Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River led directly to the most populous and most important part of the enemy’s territory. The capture of Montreal would cut the line of communications upon which the British defense of Upper Canada depended, making the fall of that province inevitable. But this invasion route was near the center of disaffection in the United States from which little local support could be expected. The places where enthusiasm for the war ran high and where the Canadian forces were weak offered a safer theater of operations, though one with fewer strategic opportunities. Thus, in violation of the principles of objective and economy of force, the first assaults were delivered across the Detroit River and across the Niagara River between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario rather than along the Hudson–Lake Champlain–Montreal line of advance.  

[[Image:1812map.jpg|thumb|300px|main areas of the fighting]]      

      

The war progressed through three distinct stages. In the first, lasting until the spring of 1813, England was so hard pressed in Europe that it could spare neither men nor ships in any great number for the conflict in North America. The United States was free to take the initiative, to invade Canada, and to send out cruisers and privateers against enemy shipping. During the second stage, lasting from early 1813 to the beginning of 1814, Britain was able to establish a tight blockade but still could not materially reinforce the troops in Canada. During this stage the American Army, having gained experience, won its first successes. The third stage, in 1814, was marked by the constant arrival in North America of British regulars and naval reinforcements, which enabled the enemy to raid the North American coast almost at will and to take the offensive in several quarters. At the same time, in this final stage of the war American forces fought their best fights and won their most brilliant victories.

The war progressed through three distinct stages. In the first, lasting until the spring of 1813, England was so hard pressed in Europe that it could spare neither men nor ships in any great number for the conflict in North America. The United States was free to take the initiative, to invade Canada, and to send out cruisers and privateers against enemy shipping. During the second stage, lasting from early 1813 to the beginning of 1814, Britain was able to establish a tight blockade but still could not materially reinforce the troops in Canada. During this stage the American Army, having gained experience, won its first successes. The third stage, in 1814, was marked by the constant arrival in North America of British regulars and naval reinforcements, which enabled the enemy to raid the North American coast almost at will and to take the offensive in several quarters. At the same time, in this final stage of the war American forces fought their best fights and won their most brilliant victories.

        

        

Except for minor raids across the frozen St. Lawrence, there was no further fighting along the New York frontier until the following spring. During the Niagara campaign the largest force then under arms, commanded by Maj. Gen. Henry Dearborn, had been held in the neighborhood of Albany, more than two hundred and fifty miles from the scene of operations. Dearborn had a good record in the Revolutionary War and had served as President Jefferson’s Secretary of War. Persuaded to accept the command of the northern theater, except for Hull’s forces, he was in doubt for some time about the extent of his authority over the Niagara front. When it was clarified, he was reluctant to exercise it. Proposing to move his army, which included seven regiments of regulars with artillery and dragoons, against Montreal in conjunction with a simultaneous operation across the Niagara River, Dearborn was content to wait for his subordinates to make the first move. When van Rensselaer made his attempt against Queenston, Dearborn, still in the vicinity of Albany, showed no sign of marching toward Canada. At the beginning of November he sent a large force north to Plattsburg and announced that he would personally lead the army into Montreal, but most of his force got no farther than the border. When his advance guard was driven back to the village of Champlain by Canadian militiamen and Indians and his Vermont and New York volunteers flatly refused to cross the border, Dearborn quietly turned around and marched back to Plattsburg, where he went into winter quarters.  

Except for minor raids across the frozen St. Lawrence, there was no further fighting along the New York frontier until the following spring. During the Niagara campaign the largest force then under arms, commanded by Maj. Gen. Henry Dearborn, had been held in the neighborhood of Albany, more than two hundred and fifty miles from the scene of operations. Dearborn had a good record in the Revolutionary War and had served as President Jefferson’s Secretary of War. Persuaded to accept the command of the northern theater, except for Hull’s forces, he was in doubt for some time about the extent of his authority over the Niagara front. When it was clarified, he was reluctant to exercise it. Proposing to move his army, which included seven regiments of regulars with artillery and dragoons, against Montreal in conjunction with a simultaneous operation across the Niagara River, Dearborn was content to wait for his subordinates to make the first move. When van Rensselaer made his attempt against Queenston, Dearborn, still in the vicinity of Albany, showed no sign of marching toward Canada. At the beginning of November he sent a large force north to Plattsburg and announced that he would personally lead the army into Montreal, but most of his force got no farther than the border. When his advance guard was driven back to the village of Champlain by Canadian militiamen and Indians and his Vermont and New York volunteers flatly refused to cross the border, Dearborn quietly turned around and marched back to Plattsburg, where he went into winter quarters.  

[[Image:Cornepainting.jpg|right|300px|thumb|''In Action'', depicting the battle between USS ''Constitution'' and HMS ''Guerriere'', by Michel Felice Corne (1812)]]       

[[Image:Cornepainting.jpg|right|200px|thumb|''In Action'', depicting the battle between USS ''Constitution'' and HMS ''Guerriere'', by Michel Felice Corne (1812)]]       

If the land campaigns of 1812 reflected little credit on the Army, the war at sea brought lasting glory to the infant Navy. Until the end of the year the American frigates, brigs of war, and privateers were able to slip in and out of harbors and cruise almost at will; in this period they won their most brilliant victories: USS ''Constitution'' would claim HMS ''Guerierre'' off New England and HMS ''Java'' off Brazil; [[USS United States|USS ''United States'']] would capture HMS ''Macedonian''; the sloops USS ''Hornet'' and USS ''Wasp'' would wreak havoc off England itself; and USS ''Essex'' would decimate the British whaling fleet in the Pacific.  At the same time, American privateers were picking off English merchant vessels by the hundreds. Having need of American foodstuffs, Britain was at first willing to take advantage of New England’s opposition to the war by not extending the blockade to the New England coast; but by the beginning of 1814 it was effectively blockading the whole coast and had driven most American naval vessels and privateers off the high seas.

If the land campaigns of 1812 reflected little credit on the Army, the war at sea brought lasting glory to the infant Navy. Until the end of the year the American frigates, brigs of war, and privateers were able to slip in and out of harbors and cruise almost at will; in this period they won their most brilliant victories: USS ''Constitution'' would claim HMS ''Guerierre'' off New England and HMS ''Java'' off Brazil; [[USS United States|USS ''United States'']] would capture HMS ''Macedonian''; the sloops USS ''Hornet'' and USS ''Wasp'' would wreak havoc off England itself; and USS ''Essex'' would decimate the British whaling fleet in the Pacific.  At the same time, American privateers were picking off English merchant vessels by the hundreds. Having need of American foodstuffs, Britain was at first willing to take advantage of New England’s opposition to the war by not extending the blockade to the New England coast; but by the beginning of 1814 it was effectively blockading the whole coast and had driven most American naval vessels and privateers off the high seas.

        

        

Meanwhile, Sacket’s Harbor had been almost stripped of troops for the raid on York and for reinforcing the army at Fort Niagara. At Kingston, across the lake, Sir George Prevost, the Governor General of Canada, had assembled a force of 800 British regulars in addition to militia. Taking advantage of the absence of Chauncey’s fleet, which was at the other end of the lake, Prevost launched an attack on Sacket’s Harbor with his entire force of regulars on the night of May 26. The town was defended by about 400 regulars and approximately 750 militiamen under the command of Brig. Gen. Jacob Brown of the New York militia. Brown posted his men in two lines in front of a fortified battery to cover a possible landing. Coming ashore under heavy fire, the British nevertheless pressed rapidly forward, routed the first line, and pushed the second back into the prepared defenses. There, the Americans held. The British then tried two frontal assaults but were repulsed with heavy losses. While they were re-forming for a third attack, General Brown rallied the militia and sent it toward the rear of the enemy’s right flank. This was the turning point. Having suffered serious losses and in danger of being cut off, the British hurriedly withdrew to their ships.  

Meanwhile, Sacket’s Harbor had been almost stripped of troops for the raid on York and for reinforcing the army at Fort Niagara. At Kingston, across the lake, Sir George Prevost, the Governor General of Canada, had assembled a force of 800 British regulars in addition to militia. Taking advantage of the absence of Chauncey’s fleet, which was at the other end of the lake, Prevost launched an attack on Sacket’s Harbor with his entire force of regulars on the night of May 26. The town was defended by about 400 regulars and approximately 750 militiamen under the command of Brig. Gen. Jacob Brown of the New York militia. Brown posted his men in two lines in front of a fortified battery to cover a possible landing. Coming ashore under heavy fire, the British nevertheless pressed rapidly forward, routed the first line, and pushed the second back into the prepared defenses. There, the Americans held. The British then tried two frontal assaults but were repulsed with heavy losses. While they were re-forming for a third attack, General Brown rallied the militia and sent it toward the rear of the enemy’s right flank. This was the turning point. Having suffered serious losses and in danger of being cut off, the British hurriedly withdrew to their ships.  

[[Image:BattleofLakeErie.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''Battle of Lake Erie'', by William Henry Powell, 1873.]]       

[[Image:BattleofLakeErie.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''Battle of Lake Erie'', by William Henry Powell, 1873.]]       

On the same day Prevost sailed against Sacket’s Harbor, General Dearborn at the western end of Lake Ontario was invading Canada with an army of 4,000 men. The operation began with a well-executed and stubbornly resisted amphibious assault led by Col. Winfield Scott and Comdr. [[Oliver Hazard Perry]], U.S. Navy, with Chauncey’s fleet providing fire support. Outnumbered by more than two to one, the British retreated, abandoning Fort George and Queenston to the Americans.  An immediate pursuit might have sealed the victory; but Dearborn, after occupying Fort George, waited several days and then sent about 2,000 men after the enemy. The detachment advanced to within ten miles of the British and camped for the night with slight regard for security and even less for the enemy’s audacity. During the night a force of about 700 British soldiers attacked the camp and thoroughly routed the Americans. Dearborn withdrew his entire army to Fort George. About two weeks later, a 500-man detachment ventured fifteen miles outside the fort and, when attacked, surrendered to a force of British and Indians that was half as large. After these reverses there was no further action of consequence on the Niagara front for the remainder of the year. Dearborn, again incapacitated by illness, resigned his commission in early July. Both armies were hard hit by disease, and the American forces were further reduced by the renewal of the war in the west and by an attempt against Montreal.  

On the same day Prevost sailed against Sacket’s Harbor, General Dearborn at the western end of Lake Ontario was invading Canada with an army of 4,000 men. The operation began with a well-executed and stubbornly resisted amphibious assault led by Col. Winfield Scott and Comdr. [[Oliver Hazard Perry]], U.S. Navy, with Chauncey’s fleet providing fire support. Outnumbered by more than two to one, the British retreated, abandoning Fort George and Queenston to the Americans.  An immediate pursuit might have sealed the victory; but Dearborn, after occupying Fort George, waited several days and then sent about 2,000 men after the enemy. The detachment advanced to within ten miles of the British and camped for the night with slight regard for security and even less for the enemy’s audacity. During the night a force of about 700 British soldiers attacked the camp and thoroughly routed the Americans. Dearborn withdrew his entire army to Fort George. About two weeks later, a 500-man detachment ventured fifteen miles outside the fort and, when attacked, surrendered to a force of British and Indians that was half as large. After these reverses there was no further action of consequence on the Niagara front for the remainder of the year. Dearborn, again incapacitated by illness, resigned his commission in early July. Both armies were hard hit by disease, and the American forces were further reduced by the renewal of the war in the west and by an attempt against Montreal.  

        

        

Opposite the British and behind a ditch stretching from the river to the swamp, Jackson had raised earthworks high enough to require scaling ladders for an assault. About 3,500 men with another 1,000 in reserve manned the defenses. It was a varied group, composed of the 7th and 44th Infantry Regiments, Major Beale’s New Orleans Sharpshooters, LaCoste and Daquin’s battalions of free African Americans, the Louisiana militia under General David Morgan, a band of Choctaw Indians, the Baratarian pirates, and a motley battalion of fashionably dressed sons and brothers of the New Orleans aristocracy. To support  

Opposite the British and behind a ditch stretching from the river to the swamp, Jackson had raised earthworks high enough to require scaling ladders for an assault. About 3,500 men with another 1,000 in reserve manned the defenses. It was a varied group, composed of the 7th and 44th Infantry Regiments, Major Beale’s New Orleans Sharpshooters, LaCoste and Daquin’s battalions of free African Americans, the Louisiana militia under General David Morgan, a band of Choctaw Indians, the Baratarian pirates, and a motley battalion of fashionably dressed sons and brothers of the New Orleans aristocracy. To support  

his defenses, Jackson had assembled more than twenty pieces of artillery, including a battery of nine heavy guns on the opposite bank of the Mississippi.  

his defenses, Jackson had assembled more than twenty pieces of artillery, including a battery of nine heavy guns on the opposite bank of the Mississippi.  

[[Image:New-O-1812.JPG|thumb|425px|Jackson at New Orleans]]

[[Image:New-O-1812.JPG|thumb|200px|Jackson at New Orleans]]

 

 

After losing an artillery duel to the Americans on January 1, Pakenham decided on a frontal assault in combination with an attack against the American troops on the west bank. The main assault was to be delivered by about 5,300 men, while about 600 men under Lt. Col. William Thornton were to cross the river and clear the west bank. As the British columns appeared out of the early morning mist on January 8, they were met with murderous fire, first from the artillery, then from the muskets and rifles of Jackson’s infantry. Achieving mass through firepower, the Americans mowed the British down by the hundreds. Pakenham and one other general were killed and a third badly wounded. More than 2,000 of the British were casualties; the American losses were trifling.  

After losing an artillery duel to the Americans on January 1, Pakenham decided on a frontal assault in combination with an attack against the American troops on the west bank. The main assault was to be delivered by about 5,300 men, while about 600 men under Lt. Col. William Thornton were to cross the river and clear the west bank. As the British columns appeared out of the early morning mist on January 8, they were met with murderous fire, first from the artillery, then from the muskets and rifles of Jackson’s infantry. Achieving mass through firepower, the Americans mowed the British down by the hundreds. Pakenham and one other general were killed and a third badly wounded. More than 2,000 of the British were casualties; the American losses were trifling.