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On September 11, 1683, Muslims made a second major attempt to conquer Europe (recall that Charles the Hammer turned back their first attempt).  A massive Islamic army arrived at the Gates of Vienna.  An alliance of Christian armies, led by the Polish King Jan III Sobieski, defeated the Muslim force.<ref>http://gatesofvienna.blogspot.com/2006/09/other-september-11th.html</ref>  Some have observed that the "9/11" massacre in New York City was on the anniversary of this day.

On September 11, 1683, Muslims made a second major attempt to conquer Europe (recall that Charles the Hammer turned back their first attempt).  A massive Islamic army arrived at the Gates of Vienna.  An alliance of Christian armies, led by the Polish King Jan III Sobieski, defeated the Muslim force.<ref>http://gatesofvienna.blogspot.com/2006/09/other-september-11th.html</ref>  Some have observed that the "9/11" massacre in New York City was on the anniversary of this day.

Two other momentous events happened in the 1600s which would also affect the world forever.  In 1607, Englishmen established a permanent settlement at Jamestown, Virginia.  In 1611, the King James Bible was published with this introduction:<ref name=""KJV">http://www.av1611.org/kjv/kjvhist.html</ref>

Two other momentous events happened in the 1600s which would also affect the world forever.  In 1607, Englishmen established a permanent settlement at Jamestown, Virginia.  In 1611, the King James Bible was published with this introduction:<ref name="KJV">http://www.av1611.org/kjv/kjvhist.html</ref>

:THE" HOLY BIBLE, Conteyning the Old Testament, and the New: Newly Translated out of the Originall tongues: & with the former Translations diligently compared and revised, by his Majesties Special Commandment. Appointed to be read in Churches. Imprinted at London by Robert Barker, Printer to the Kings most Excellent Majestie. ANNO DOM. 1611.

:THE HOLY BIBLE, Conteyning the Old Testament, and the New: Newly Translated out of the Originall tongues: & with the former Translations diligently compared and revised, by his Majesties Special Commandment. Appointed to be read in Churches. Imprinted at London by Robert Barker, Printer to the Kings most Excellent Majestie. ANNO DOM. 1611.

Some might say that the publication of the King James Bible was more significant than the settlement at Jamestown.  This version of the Bible, which became known as the "Authorized Version," was a spectacular work that transformed and elevated the entire English language to new heights.  Even a Catholic scholar expressed the highest praise for this Protestant work, as all Christians recognized it to be an absolute masterpiece:<ref name=""KJV"/>

Some might say that the publication of the King James Bible was more significant than the settlement at Jamestown.  This version of the Bible, which became known as the "Authorized Version," was a spectacular work that transformed and elevated the entire English language to new heights.  Even a Catholic scholar expressed the highest praise for this Protestant work, as all Christians recognized it to be an absolute masterpiece:<ref name="KJV"/>

:The" highest eulogiums have been made on the translation of James the First, both by our own writers and by foreigners. And, indeed, if accuracy, fidelity, and the strictest attention to the letter of the text, be supposed to constitute the qualities of an excellent version, this of all versions, must, in general, be accounted the most excellent. Every sentence, every work, every syllable, every letter and point, seem to have been weighed with the nicest exactitude; and expressed, either in the text, or margin, with the greatest precision.

:The highest eulogiums have been made on the translation of James the First, both by our own writers and by foreigners. And, indeed, if accuracy, fidelity, and the strictest attention to the letter of the text, be supposed to constitute the qualities of an excellent version, this of all versions, must, in general, be accounted the most excellent. Every sentence, every work, every syllable, every letter and point, seem to have been weighed with the nicest exactitude; and expressed, either in the text, or margin, with the greatest precision.

To this day many feel that the King James Bible is the finest English translation available, despite the antiquity of some of its terminology.  It is free from modern translation biases that hide the existence and wrath of Hell, for example.  But for the purposes of this course, we are interested in how this was a defining moment in the development of the English language, and how the language has grown since then.

To this day many feel that the King James Bible is the finest English translation available, despite the antiquity of some of its terminology.  It is free from modern translation biases that hide the existence and wrath of Hell, for example.  But for the purposes of this course, we are interested in how this was a defining moment in the development of the English language, and how the language has grown since then.

Note how the term “Enlightenment” is biased and self-serving.  It makes it appear that people became enlightened compared to their ignorant ancestors.  In fact, the achievements of the so-called “Enlightenment” movement were not any greater than other movements and periods in history, and there are valid criticisms of certain aspects of the Enlightenment.

Note how the term “Enlightenment” is biased and self-serving.  It makes it appear that people became enlightened compared to their ignorant ancestors.  In fact, the achievements of the so-called “Enlightenment” movement were not any greater than other movements and periods in history, and there are valid criticisms of certain aspects of the Enlightenment.

Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet) (1694-1778) was a leading french philosopher during the Enlightenment, advocating broadened freedom (though a monarchist) and emphasizing his form of reason.  He wrote ''[[Candide]],'' a vicious satire on human nature, religion, slavery, and the optimistic philosophy of [[Leibniz]].  Increased freedom was Voltaire’s way of improving things.  Some of his ideas formed the basis of the French Revolution, thought he was always a staunch opponent of democracy and a proponent of religious freedom.

Frenchman Voltaire (1694-1778) was a leading philosopher in the Enlightenment, advocating freedom everywhere and emphasizing his form of reason.  He wrote “The Candide,” in which Voltaire described many bad things that happen to Candide in order to make the point that the world could be a better place.  Increased freedom was Voltaire’s way of improving things.  His ideas later formed the basis of the French Revolution, when many innocent people (including the French royalty and much of the aristocracy) were murdered and churches destroyed amid a reign of terror.

Englishman John Locke (1632-1704) was the leading political philosopher, whose ideas helped the American colonists form a new government.  Locke described society as a contract between an individual and society.  This was a radical concept at a time when monarchs and the divine right of kings was the controlling theory.  Locke’s view helped lay the foundation for the constitutional government that we use in the United States.  Locke had built on the prior work of Englishmen Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes. He also had enormous influence through his philosophical treatise ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding,'' in which he sought to explain the nature of the human mind and ideas

Englishman John Locke (1632-1704) was the leading political philosopher, whose ideas helped the American colonists form a new government.  Locke described society as a contract between an individual and society.  This was a radical concept at a time when monarchs and the divine right of kings was the controlling theory.  Locke’s view helped lay the foundation for the constitutional government that we use in the United States.  Locke had built on the prior work of Englishmen Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes.

Sir William Blackstone (1723-1780) was the leading legal authority on English law, upon which much American law is based.  Law students in America hear about him frequently in law school.  In “The Rights of Englishmen,” Blackstone described the source of the rights of the people.

Sir William Blackstone (1723-1780) was the leading legal authority on English law, upon which much American law is based.  Law students in America hear about him frequently in law school.  In “The Rights of Englishmen,” Blackstone described the source of the rights of the people.

Irishman Edmund Burke (1729-1797) was in the British parliament when the conflict with the American colonies occurred, and he sided with the colonies, making him a hero to many in America.  He is also considered to be the world’s first political conservative, and many conservatives today praise him for that reason.  His works included “Inquiries into the Sublime and Beautiful” (defending the American colonies and examining how people interpret what they see) and “Reflections on the Revolution in France” (warning, even while everyone else praised the French Revolution, how they were all wrong and how bad the French Revolution was because a few would gain control and abuse their power).  What was striking about Burke was that he was almost always right in his political assessments and predictions.

Irishman Edmund Burke (1729-1797) was in the British parliament when the conflict with the American colonies occurred, and he sided with the colonies, making him a hero to many in America.  He is also considered to be the world’s first political conservative, and many conservatives today praise him for that reason.  His works included “Inquiries into the Sublime and Beautiful” (defending the American colonies and examining how people interpret what they see) and “Reflections on the Revolution in France” (warning, even while everyone else praised the French Revolution, how they were all wrong and how bad the French Revolution was because a few would gain control and abuse their power).  What was striking about Burke was that he was almost always right in his political assessments and predictions.

The Scotsman David Hume (1711-1776) was a philosopher and historian who promoted materialism and naturalism rather than spirituality.  He was a “skeptic” towards religion, and he penned “A Treatise on Human Nature.”  He quipped, “You can tell what is inside a person’s soul by what comes out if it.”  Hume has been criticized for his atheistic approach and his chief claim to fame is that Charles Darwin declared Hume to have been his central influence, as did “Darwin’s bulldog,” Thomas Henry Huxley.  Hume believed in relativism rather than absolute truth, and that not even what God creates has absolute beauty: “Beauty in things exists merely in the mind which contemplates them,” Hume declared.<ref>David Hume’s ''Essays, Moral and Political'' (1742).</ref>

The Scotsman David Hume (1711-1776) was a philosopher and historian who promoted materialism and naturalism rather than spirituality.  He was a “skeptic” towards religion, and he penned “A Treatise on Human Nature.”  He quipped, “You can tell what is inside a person’s soul by what comes out if it.” Hume is considered the greatest philosopher to write in English, but that is only because there were so few good English philosophers. Hume has been criticized for his atheistic approach and his chief claim to fame is that Charles Darwin declared Hume to have been his central influence, as did “Darwin’s bulldog,” Thomas Henry Huxley.  Hume believed in relativism rather than absolute truth, and that not even what God creates has absolute beauty: “Beauty in things exists merely in the mind which contemplates them,” Hume declared.<ref>David Hume’s ''Essays, Moral and Political'' (1742).</ref>

The German Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was one of the most famous philosophers ever.  In his “A Critique of Pure Reason,” Kant criticizes pure reason as a guide to life.  Kant may not have been a Christian himself, but he considered Christian values to be the best values in the world.  Kant also established a systematic basis for critical philosophy and suggested a material origin for the solar system.  Kant’s own suggestion for a moral daily life was this:  don’t do something which, if everyone did it, then the outcome would be bad.  Expressed another way, an act is moral only if it works as a rule for everyone.  For example, littering would be wrong because if everyone did it, then there would be an ugly mess.  Kant is taught in all college philosophy departments to this day, but not because he praised Christianity!

The German Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was one of the most famous philosophers ever.  In his “A Critique of Pure Reason,” Kant criticizes pure reason as a guide to life.  Kant may not have been a Christian himself, but he considered Christian values to be the best values in the world.  Kant also established a systematic basis for critical philosophy and suggested a material origin for the solar system.  Kant’s own suggestion for a moral daily life was this:  don’t do something which, if everyone did it, then the outcome would be bad.  Expressed another way, an act is moral only if it works as a rule for everyone.  For example, littering would be wrong because if everyone did it, then there would be an ugly mess.  Kant is taught in all college philosophy departments to this day, but not because he praised Christianity!