Changes

But Belgium, which was neutral, would not allow Germany to pass through its borders to invade France.  So Germany invaded and defeated Belgium.  Britain had a relationship with Belgium and Britain declared war on Germany on August 4, 1914.

But Belgium, which was neutral, would not allow Germany to pass through its borders to invade France.  So Germany invaded and defeated Belgium.  Britain had a relationship with Belgium and Britain declared war on Germany on August 4, 1914.

In a mere week an isolated act of violence between Austria and Serbia (sparked by a teenager) escalated into a world war between Britain, France and Russia (the Allied Powers) and Germany and Austria-Hungary (the Central Powers).  Italy left the German side when it invaded the neutral Belgium, and later Italy joined the Allied Powers along with Japan.  The Ottoman empire and Bulgaria eventually joined the Central Powers.

In summary, in a mere week an isolated act of violence between Austria and Serbia (sparked by a teenager) escalated into a world war between Britain, France and Russia (the Allied Powers) and Germany and Austria-Hungary (the Central Powers).  Italy left the German side when it invaded the neutral Belgium, and later Italy joined the Allied Powers along with Japan.  The Ottoman empire and Bulgaria eventually joined the Central Powers.

=== Initial Stages of the War ===

=== Initial Stages of the War ===

The fighting in the “Great War,” as it was called then (it is now called World War I), was savage and brutal.  Army casualties totaled more than 37 million people, and there were another 10 million in civilian deaths.  For weeks armies were in trenches opposite each other, spending day after day trying to kill their opponents in the opposite trench.  This was known as trench warfare.  Movement of ten or twenty feet in advance of a trench was a big success.  Barbed wire marked off an area known as “no man’s land” between the two trenches, where any visitor would be shot on sight.  Also, a deadly flu virus spread among the soldiers and infected the world, killing millions more.  The late 1910s was a dreadful time for the world.

The fighting in the “Great War,” as it was called then (it is now called World War I), was savage and brutal.  Army casualties totaled more than 37 million people, and there were another 10 million in civilian deaths.  For weeks armies fought in trenches (deep, long ditches in the ground), spending day after day trying to kill their opponents lined up in an opposite trench several hundred yards away.  This was known as trench warfare.  Movement of ten or twenty feet in advance of a trench was a big success.  Barbed wire marked off an area known as “no man’s land” between the two trenches, where anyone who went into this area would be shot on sight.  Also, a deadly flu virus spread among the soldiers and infected the world, killing millions more.  The late 1910s was a dreadful time for the world.

At the end of the war, the nations signed a peace agreement that was so misguided that it caused another great war to occur (World War II).  So this World War I was bad news all around.  Nothing was achieved by it. World War I was even pathetic in terms of military strategy.  The first year and a half (1914-15) is known as “Entrenchment,” during which there were terrible casualties without either side gaining the upper hand.  The next year, 1916, is known as “Continued Stalemate”.  Get the idea?  The following year, 1917, is known for the entrance by the United States and the withdrawal by Russia due to its communist revolution.  In 1918 more nations withdrew from the war, and the major remaining nations of Britain, France, Germany and the United States ended the war with an armistice in November of that year.

At the end of the war, the nations signed a peace agreement that was so misguided that it caused another great war to occur (World War II).  So this World War I was bad news all around.  Nothing was achieved by it. World War I was even pathetic in terms of military strategy.  The first year and a half (1914-15) is known as “Entrenchment,” during which there were terrible casualties without either side gaining the upper hand.  The next year, 1916, is known as “Continued Stalemate”.  Get the idea?  The following year, 1917, is known for the entrance by the United States and the withdrawal by Russia due to its communist revolution.  In 1918 more nations withdrew from the war, and the major remaining nations of Britain, France, Germany and the United States ended the war with an armistice in November of that year.

One key battle worth reading about from World War I was the initial Battle of the Marne, which forced Germany to fight on two fronts despite its attempt to avoid that.  But while the Allied Powers were holding their own on the Western Front, Russia was losing on the Eastern Front.  Russia was not as industrialized as the West and its military was inferior.  The only thing that enabled the Russians to avoid complete defeat on the Eastern Front was that they were tenacious fighters.

=== The Colonies and the Great War ===

=== The Colonies ===

The colonies were not much help to the European powers, and attempting to use them for World War I left some bitterness.  For example, Britain drew upon its colonies of Canada, Australia and New Zealand to supply a failed Gallipoli campaign, which attempted to forge a supply line to Russia.  But these three colonies suffered heavy losses that left them bitter about Britain, and desirous of independence from the British empire.

Britain was successful in enlisting troops from the colonies of Egypt, India, Australia and New Zealand to defeat the weakened Ottomans.  An Arab revolt against the Turks (German allies) was led by a British soldier named T. E. (Thomas Edward) Lawrence, known as “Lawrence of Arabia.”  His guerrilla warfare campaign against the Turks kept large numbers of troops tied up trying to suppress it, and it helped the British capture Aqaba and Damascus.  Meanwhile, the Indian Mohandas Gandhi encouraged support of the British in the war as a way of building good will towards the Indian cause for independence.  French colonies also lent some support to its efforts.

 

However, Britain was successful in enlisting troops from the colonies of Egypt, India, Australia and New Zealand to defeat the weakened Ottomans.  An Arab revolt against the Turks (German allies) was led by a British soldier named T. E. (Thomas Edward) Lawrence, known as “Lawrence of Arabia.”  His guerrilla warfare campaign against the Turks kept large numbers of troops tied up trying to suppress it, and it helped the British capture Aqaba and Damascus.  Meanwhile, the Indian Mohandas Gandhi encouraged support of the British in the war as a way of building good will towards the Indian cause for independence.  French colonies also lent support.

The German colonies could not help the Germans, because these colonies were captured by Allied Powers.

The German colonies could not help the Germans, because these colonies were captured by Allied Powers.

==Introduction==

==World War I==

The “Great War,” which was what we now call World War I, lasted in Europe from 1914 to 1918.  It was the first global war in world history.  It was the first war that used aircraft, including airplanes and blimps.  The “Bloody Red Baron,” made famous later by a humorous song featuring the dog “Snoopy”, was a German ace fighter pilot named Manfred von Richthofen (1892-1918).  Considered the greatest fighter pilot ever, Richthofen shot down 80 enemy aircraft during the war before being killed by anti-aircraft fire from the ground.

The “Great War,” which we now call World War I, lasted in Europe from 1914 to 1918.  It was the first global war in world history.  It was the first war that used aircraft, including airplanes and blimps.  The “Bloody Red Baron,” made famous later by a humorous song featuring the dog “Snoopy”, was a German ace fighter pilot named Manfred von Richthofen (1892-1918).  Considered the greatest fighter pilot ever, Richthofen shot down 80 enemy aircraft during the war before being killed by anti-aircraft fire from the ground.

World War I saw the first use of other weapons:  machine guns, poisonous gas, large artillery and armored tanks.  This war was a “total war” because the governments involved took control over the economy and factories, giving first priority to the goods needed for war.  Wage and price controls were imposed, there was rationing of consumption of goods by civilians, and free speech was limited.  Instead, the governments put out propaganda to maximize support for the war and dislike of the enemy.

World War I saw the first use of other weapons:  machine guns, poisonous gas, large artillery and armored tanks.  This war was a “total war” because the governments involved took control over the economy and factories, giving first priority to the goods needed for war.  Wage and price controls were imposed, there was rationing of consumption of goods by civilians, and free speech was limited.  Governments put out propaganda to maximize support for the war and dislike of the enemy.

With nearly all the young European men sent to battle, the women filled the factory jobs previously filled by men.  Women tested munitions in factories, for example, and performed other strenuous jobs.  Historians cite this shift in the workforce as being instrumental in changing attitudes about the proper role for women in society.

With nearly all the young European men sent to battle, the women filled the factory jobs previously filled by men.  Women tested munitions in factories, for example, and performed other strenuous jobs.  Historians cite this shift in the workforce as being instrumental in changing attitudes about the proper role for women in society.

As great as this cost of war was, the irony was that the war settled nothing and simply set the stage for another terrible world war about twenty years later.  The Communist Revolution, which threatened the entire world for most of the 1900s, also occurred during World War I.

As great as this cost of war was, the irony was that the war settled nothing and simply set the stage for another terrible world war about twenty years later.  The Communist Revolution, which threatened the entire world for most of the 1900s, also occurred during World War I.

==World War I==

===The Two Sides===

On the side of the Central Powers were Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman empire.  On other side were the Allies of Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Japan and, beginning in 1917, the United States.

On the side of the Central Powers were Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman empire.  On other side were the Allies of Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Japan and, beginning in 1917, the United States.

This is easy, because there were not many great battles of World War I.  It was mostly trench warfare, but highly deadly.  Horrific poisonous gas was even used.

This is easy, because there were not many great battles of World War I.  It was mostly trench warfare, but highly deadly.  Horrific poisonous gas was even used.

There were four great battles before large numbers of American soldiers reached Europe in 1917.

There were five great battles before large numbers of American soldiers reached Europe in 1917.  

 

====Gallipoli====

====Gallipoli====

===The Communist Revolution===

===The Communist Revolution===

Lenin arrived in St. Petersburg (Petrograd) in April 1917, and he quickly gained control for the Bolsheviks in the largest Russian cities.  Then, in November 1917, he organized armed factory workers known as the Red Guards to march on the Winter Palace in Petrograd.  There they arrested the leaders of the Russian provisional government.

Lenin arrived in St. Petersburg (Petrograd) in April 1917, and he quickly seized control for the Bolsheviks in the largest Russian cities.  Then, in November 1917, he organized armed factory workers known as the Red Guards to march on the Winter Palace in Petrograd.  There Lenin’s Red Guards arrested the leaders of the Russian provisional government.

Soon Lenin took ownership of the factories and gave control to the workers, and redistributed land among the peasants.  He also ended the war with Germany, as described above.

Soon Lenin took ownership of the factories and gave control to the workers, and redistributed land among the peasants.  He also ended the war with Germany, as described above.

The West was alarmed by these developments and supported a “White Army” to fight Lenin’s “Red Army.”  Civil war resulted in Russia that lasted from 1918 to 1920, killing ten million people during the war, and another five million due a famine that followed the war.  But the Red Army, led by Leon Trotsky, won.

The West was alarmed by these developments and supported a “White Army” to fight Lenin’s “Red Army.”  Civil war resulted in Russia that lasted from 1918 to 1920, killing ten million people during the war, and another five million due a famine that followed the war.  But the Red Army, headed by Leon Trotsky, won.

Leon Trotsky (1879-1940) had been a participant with Lenin in the communist revolution in Russian in 1917. Trotsky had joined the Bolsheviks and was part of the October Revolution. But when Lenin later died, Trotsky had a power struggle with Joseph Stalin. Trotsky took the view that socialism in the Soviet Union must await a revolution in Western Europe and even worldwide. Stalin wanted power immediately, and expelled Trotsky in 1927 from the political party and exiled him from Russia in 1929. Trotsky eventually settled in Mexico in 1937, where he was hunted down and murdered by a Stalin assassin posing as a gardener. Trotsky’s famous motto in life was this: “Those who do not obey do not eat.”  

Leon Trotsky (1879-1940) had been a participant with Lenin in the communist revolution in Russia in 1917. Trotsky had joined the Bolsheviks and was part of the October Revolution. But when Lenin later died, Trotsky had a power struggle with Joseph Stalin. Trotsky took the view that socialism in the Soviet Union must await a revolution in Western Europe and even worldwide. Stalin wanted power immediately, and expelled Trotsky in 1927 from the political party and then exiled him entirely from Russia in 1929. Trotsky eventually settled in Mexico in 1937, where he was hunted down and murdered by a Stalin assassin posing as a gardener. Whereas the Englishman Captain John Smith famously stated in the early days of the Jamestown settlement, “He who does not work, does not eat,” Trotsky’s famous motto was this: “Those who do not obey do not eat.”  

After the Russian Civil War from 1818 to 1820, the country was in economic ruins.  In March 1921, Lenin announced his New Economic Policy (NEP) to restore trade and industry to the country.  The NEP permitted some capitalism to create incentives, and it allowed for some foreign investment.  Peasants could sell surplus crops.  Profits by merchants were allowed.  But government still controlled all major industries.  The private ownership only applied to small factories, farms and stores.  Things had improved by 1928.

Communism and the Russian Civil War from 1818 to 1820 left the country in economic ruin.  In March 1921, Lenin announced his New Economic Policy (NEP) to restore trade and industry to the country.  The NEP permitted some capitalism to create incentives, and it allowed for some foreign investment.  Peasants could sell surplus crops.  Profits by merchants were allowed.  But government still controlled all major industries.  This small amount of private ownership applied only to small factories, farms and stores.  Still, it helped improve the economy by 1928.

Politically, Lenin established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922, allowing one central government under Lenin to control many socialized republics.  In 1924, the Bolsheviks began calling themselves “Communists” and established a constitution.  But there was only one political party, and it held all the power.  It was the Communist Party.

Politically, Lenin established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922, allowing Lenin’s central government to control many socialized republics.  In 1924, the Bolsheviks began calling themselves “Communists” and established a constitution.  But there was only one political party, and it held all the power.  It was the Communist Party.

===Joseph Stalin===

===Joseph Stalin===

As noted above, Joseph Stalin won the power struggle when Lenin died, which was in 1924.  Stalin established a brutal totalitarian state, whereby he dictated all aspects of life and used violence to destroy any opponents.  A secret police aided Stalin in his vicious execution of all opponents.

As noted above, Joseph Stalin won the power struggle when Lenin died in 1924.  Stalin established a brutal totalitarian state, whereby he dictated all aspects of life and used violence to destroy any opponents.  A secret police aided Stalin in his vicious execution of all opponents.

Stalin was one of the worst murderers in the history of the world.  He starved to death perhaps 20 million Ukrainians.  He conducted the Great Purge from 1934 to 1939, in which he executed all opponents.  He established youth groups to brainwash other youths in how great Stalin was, and how great communism was.  He persecuted all religious groups and destroyed houses of worship.  He controlled the press.

Stalin was one of the worst murderers in the history of the world.  He starved to death perhaps 20 million Ukrainians.  He conducted the Great Purge from 1934 to 1939, in which he executed all opponents.  He established youth groups to brainwash other youths in how great Stalin was, and how great communism was.  He persecuted all religious groups and destroyed houses of worship.  He controlled the press.

Stalin had women work in factories just like men, in addition to the women’s chores of homemaking and raising children.  Stalin converted all schools into instruments of propaganda to teach students to love communism and worship the state.  [[Abortion]] skyrocketed in Russia at rates many times the rest of the world.  Alcoholism was rampant also.

Stalin had women work in factories just like men, in addition to the women’s chores of homemaking and raising children.  Stalin converted all schools into instruments of propaganda to teach students to love communism and worship the state.  [[Abortion]] skyrocketed in Russia at rates many times the rest of the world.  Alcoholism was rampant also.

Stalin continued to industrialize the Soviet Union (formerly Russia but now including surrounding “soviets” also).  He established a command economy whereby the government made all economic decisions.  Under such a regime, shortages became widespread and people have to wait in line for hours to obtain basic necessities.  Stalin announced a Five-Year Plan to try to increase production of industrial items like electricity, oil, steel and coal.  This was a failure, although production did increase a bit.  Then Stalin tried a second Five-Year Plan to make up for the failure of the first one.

Stalin continued to industrialize the Soviet Union, which included the former country of Russia along with many surrounding “soviets”.  Stalin established a command economy whereby the government made all economic decisions.  Under such a regime, shortages became widespread and people had to wait in line for hours to obtain basic necessities.  Stalin announced a Five-Year Plan to try to increase production of industrial items like electricity, oil, steel and coal.  This was a failure, although production did increase a bit.  Stalin next tried a second Five-Year Plan to make up for the failure of the first one.

Stalin seized millions of private farms in 1928, and combined them into large, government-owned farms.  This was another disaster.  Stalin particularly punished the Ukrainian kulaks, who were wealthier peasants who had done well (through their own hard work) during Lenin’s NEP.  Stalin’s enforcement of collective farming against the kulaks caused a huge famine in the Ukraine and the death of perhaps 20 million people.  In sum, Stalin was a brutal and not-very-bright dictator.

This was how the communist Stalin killed perhaps 20 million in the Ukraine.  In 1928, Stalin seized millions of private farms, and combined them into large, government-owned farms.  Stalin did this to punish the Ukrainian kulaks, who were wealthier peasants who had done well (through their own hard work) during Lenin’s NEP.  Stalin’s enforcement of collective farming against the kulaks caused a huge famine in the Ukraine, and the famine resulted in the death of an estimated 20 million victims.  In sum, the communist Stalin was one of the most brutal dictators in world history, and also one of the dumbest.

==Nationalism in Eastern, Southern and Southwestern Asia==

==Nationalism in Eastern, Southern and Southwestern Asia==

===India===

===India===

The British did not grant India independence immediately after World War I, as many Indians hoped.  Great Britain had no intention of relinquishing this magical subcontinent, and to control rebellions it passed a law in 1919 allowing imprisonment for two years without a jury trial.  Hindus and Muslims alike sought independence instead, and formed a peaceful demonstration at Amritsar, which was the capital of the Punjab area.  But a panicked British commander instructed his troops to fire on the Hindu and Muslim protesters, killing 400 in what is known as the Amritsar Massacre.  Indians nationwide were outraged and demanded independence.

The British did not grant independence to its colony of India immediately after World War I, as many Indians hoped.  Great Britain had no intention of relinquishing this vast subcontinent in Asia, which was valuable strategically.  To control rebellions in India, Britain passed a law in 1919 allowing imprisonment for two years without a jury trial.  Hindus and Muslims alike sought independence instead, and formed a peaceful demonstration at Amritsar, which was the capital of the Punjab area.  But a panicked British commander instructed his troops to fire on the Hindu and Muslim protesters, killing 400 in what is known as the Amritsar Massacre.  Indians nationwide were outraged and demanded independence.

The great leader who obtained Indian independence was Mohandas K. Ghandi, known as the Mahatma (“Great Soul”).  He urged peaceful civil disobedience to the British, calling on Indians to refuse to pay taxes to Britain and refuse to attend British schools.  He also called for a boycott of British manufactures, especially for the cloths that Indian weavers are so famous for.  The Indians heeded Ghandi’s leadership and stopped buying British cloth.  Ghandi also called for the Indian National Congress to change from an elite or wealthy group into more of a people’s voice that could advocate independence.  Ghandi drew upon Christian concepts as well as his native Hinduism.

A spiritual Indian leader emerged who was ultimately able to win Indian independence:  Mohandas K. Ghandi, known as the Mahatma (“Great Soul”).  He urged peaceful civil disobedience against the British, calling on Indians to refuse to pay taxes to Britain and to refuse to attend British schools.  He also called on Indians to stop trading with Britain, particularly with respect to clothing.  Britain, which was itself being weakened by socialism, was not as strong economically as it used to be.  Ghandi also campaigned for the Indian National Congress to change from an elite or wealthy group into more of a people’s voice that could advocate independence.  Ghandi’s approach drew upon Christian concepts as well as his native Hinduism.

One of Ghandi’s acts of protest was to lead the Salt March in 1930 for 240 miles to the sea, so that Indians could obtain salt from evaporated salt water rather than buy it from (and pay taxes to) Britain.  A law required Indians to buy salt from the British government, but Ghandi’s march peacefully disobeyed that law and created much publicity.  Ghandi and many of his supporters were eventually arrested for some of their protests.

Ghandi supported peaceful protests.  He led the Salt March in 1930 for 240 miles to the sea, to symbolize how Indians could obtain salt from evaporated salt water rather than buy it from (and pay taxes to) Britain.  A law required Indians to buy salt from the British government, but Ghandi’s march peacefully disobeyed that law and created much publicity.  Ghandi and many of his supporters were eventually arrested for some of their protests.

At one point a British leader agreed to meet with Ghandi, who then attended with the simple Hindu clothing of a single cloth gown.  Offended by this, some British demanded an explanation.  Ghandi responded that the British official, who was dressed in the customary suit and tie, was wearing enough clothes for both of them!

At one point a British leader agreed to meet with Ghandi, who then attended with the simple Hindu clothing of a single cloth gown.  Offended by this, some British demanded an explanation for what appeared to them to be disrespectful clothing for a formal meeting.  Ghandi responded that the British official, who was dressed up in a formal suit and tie, was wearing enough clothes for both of them!

Eventually Ghandi’s protest efforts paid off, as the British Parliament enacted the Government of India Act in 1935.  This established self-rule at a local level and allowed some democratic elections.  Muslims, however, feared majority Hindu rule and requested a separate state for Muslims.  The Muslim League endorsed the creation of a new country called “Pakistan” for the predominantly Muslim population of that region.  India and Pakistan are fully independent today.

Eventually Ghandi’s protest efforts paid off, as the British Parliament enacted the Government of India Act in 1935.  This established self-rule at a local level and allowed some democratic elections.  Muslims, however, feared majority Hindu rule and requested a separate state for Muslims.  The Muslim League endorsed the creation of a new country called “Pakistan” for the predominantly Muslim population of that region.  Subsequently India and Pakistan were created, and they are fully independent today.  Pakistan is predominantly Muslim and India is predominantly Hindu, and the two countries are not friendly with each other.

===China===

===China===

===Science===

===Science===

The most notable accomplishment in science was the discovery of quantum mechanics by European physicists.  This discovery of subatomic behavior ultimately produced about a dozen Nobel Prizes and is the basis for the entire computer industry today.  The leading physicists included Werner Heisenberg, Max Born and Max Planck of Germany, Enrico Fermi of Italy, Niels Bohr of Denmark, Erwin Schrödinger of Austria and Paul Dirac of England.  Enrico Fermi, a devout Christian, was extraordinary in both his experimental and theoretical accomplishments.  The insight of quantum mechanics was that subatomic particles act more like waves, and are never in a specific place at a specific time until they are observed.  Quantum mechanics formed the basis later for the discovery of very small transistors, which today form the integrated circuits in every computer and electronic device.

The most notable 20th century accomplishment in science was the discovery of quantum mechanics by European physicists.  This remarkable discovery of subatomic behavior ultimately produced about a dozen Nobel Prizes and is the basis for the entire computer industry today.  The leading physicists included Werner Heisenberg, Max Born and Max Planck of Germany, Enrico Fermi of Italy, Niels Bohr of Denmark, Erwin Schrödinger of Austria and Paul Dirac of England.  Perhaps the most brilliant of the group was Enrico Fermi, who was a devout Christian extraordinary in both his experimental and theoretical accomplishments.   

Albert Einstein (1879-1955), who never accepted quantum mechanics, proposed a theory of (general) relativity in 1915, which built on work he had done in 1905.  He won a well-deserved Nobel Prize, but not for his theory of relativity.  Unlike most advances in physics, the theory of relativity was proposed based on mathematical theory rather than observation.  The theory rests on two postulates that are difficult to test, and then derives mathematically what the physical consequences should be.  Those two postulates are that the speed of light never changes, and that all laws of physics are the same in every (inertial) frame of reference no matter where it is or how fast it is traveling.  This theory rejects Newton’s view of gravitation and replaces it with a concept that there is a continuum of space and time, and that large masses (like the sun) bend space in a manner similar to how a finger can depress an area of a balloon.  From this proposed bending of space the expression arose that “space is curved.”  But experiments later proved that space is flat overall.

The insight of quantum mechanics was that subatomic particles act more like waves, and are never in a specific place at a specific time until they are observed.  Quantum mechanics formed the basis later for the discovery of very small transistors, which today form the integrated circuits in every computer and electronic device, from cell phones to IPods to laptops to everything else electronic.

Nothing useful has even been built based on the theory of relativity.  Einstein’s work had nothing to do with the development of the atom bomb, contrary to popular opinion.  Only one Nobel Prize (in 1993) has ever been given that relates to relativity, and the validity of that particular award is questionable.  Many things predicted by the theory of relativity, such as gravitons, have never been found despite much searching for them.  Many observed phenomenon, such as the bending of light passing near the sun or the advance of the perihelion in the orbit of Mercury, can be also predicted by Newton’s theory.

 

Nothing useful has even been built based on the theory of relativity.  <> Albert Einstein (1879-1955), who never accepted quantum mechanics, proposed a theory of general relativity in 1915, which built on work he had done in 1905.  He won a well-deserved Nobel Prize, but not for his theory of relativity.  Einstein’s work had nothing to do with the development of the atom bomb, contrary to popular opinion.  Only one Nobel Prize (in 1993) has ever been given that relates to relativity, and the validity of that particular award is questionable.  Many things predicted by the theory of relativity, such as gravitons, have never been found despite much searching for them.  Many observed phenomenon, such as the bending of light passing near the sun or the advance of the perihelion in the orbit of Mercury, can be also predicted by Newton’s theory.

British Historian Paul Johnson declares the turning point in 20th century to have been when fellow Brit Sir Arthur Eddington, the top English astronomer, ventured out on a boat off Africa in 1919 to observe the bending of starlight around the sun during a total eclipse.  The theory of relativity predicts twice the bending of light around massive objects compared to Newton’s theory, and an eclipse is required to darken the sun so that the starlight may be seen in proximity to the sun.  Eddington liked publicity and probably dreamed of winning a Nobel Prize, and upon his return to England declared that his observations proven the theory of relativity.  That was good enough for reporters and historians, but the Nobel committee was not impressed and declined to give him an award.  Recent analysis of Eddington’s work revealed that he was biased in selecting his data, and that overall his data was inconclusive about the theory of relativity.   

British Historian Paul Johnson declares the turning point in 20th century to have been when fellow Brit Sir Arthur Eddington, the top English astronomer, ventured out on a boat off Africa in 1919 to observe the bending of starlight around the sun during a total eclipse.  The theory of relativity predicts twice the bending of light around massive objects compared to Newton’s theory, and an eclipse is required to darken the sun so that the starlight may be seen in proximity to the sun.  Eddington liked publicity and probably dreamed of winning a Nobel Prize, and upon his return to England declared that his observations proven the theory of relativity.  That was good enough for reporters and historians, but the Nobel committee was not impressed and declined to give him an award.  Recent analysis of Eddington’s work revealed that he was biased in selecting his data, and that overall his data was inconclusive about the theory of relativity.   

France was not hurt as badly due to its strong farming economy.  But a coalition of communists, socialists and moderates formed the Popular Front to enact laws to help workers, including pay increases and a maximum 40-hour work week.  Inflation took away any gains for workers by decreasing the real value of their earnings, and unemployment remained high.

France was not hurt as badly due to its strong farming economy.  But a coalition of communists, socialists and moderates formed the Popular Front to enact laws to help workers, including pay increases and a maximum 40-hour work week.  Inflation took away any gains for workers by decreasing the real value of their earnings, and unemployment remained high.

[[Category:World History lectures]]

[[Category:World History lectures]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:World History Lecture 11}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:World History Lecture 11}}