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'''German''' (''Deutsch'') is a major world language, spoken by some 120 million people worldwide. The German vocabulary is closely related to [[English]] and [[Dutch]], and all three use the [[Latin alphabet]] in writing. German is widely spoken in [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Luxembourg]], and [[Switzerland]].<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=deu Ethnologue:German]</ref> Liechtenstein is the only state that has German as its only official language.

'''German''' (''Deutsch'') is a major world language, spoken by some 120 million people worldwide. The German vocabulary is closely related to [[English]] and [[Dutch]], and all three use the [[Latin alphabet]] in writing. German is widely spoken in [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Luxembourg]], and [[Switzerland]]<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=deu Ethnologue:German]</ref> and is an official language of [[Belgium]]. Liechtenstein is the only state that has German as its only official language.

==German Alphabet==

==German Alphabet==

The German alphabet consists of every letter in the English alphabet, with additional letters. German makes use of the letter ß, called the ''scharfes S'' ("sharp s"), which is a ligature of the letter "s" and "z" from cursive scripts. It is used for occurrences of the ''voiceless alveolar fricative'', the sound of the "s" in the English word "sea",  after long vowels and diphthongs, for which German otherwise uses "s" or "ss". This to avoid confusion with  the ''voiced alveolar fricative'', the sound of "z" in the English word "zoo", for which German always uses the letter "s". It is sometimes called the by the German pronunciation of "sz," however, if the letter is not available it has to be replaced by the letters "ss", and not by "sz". In Switzerland and Liechtenstein this letter is generally omitted in favor of "ss". The other additional letter are the three vowels  ''ä'', ''ö'' and ''ü'', also known in English as [[Umlaut|Umlauts]]. If not present on a keyboard they customarily are substituted by ''ae'', ''oe'', and ''ue''.

The German alphabet consists of every letter in the English alphabet, with additional letters. German makes use of the letter ß, called the ''scharfes S'' ("sharp s"), which is a ligature of the letter "s" and "z" from cursive scripts. It is used for occurrences of the ''voiceless alveolar fricative'', the sound of the "s" in the English word "sea",  after long vowels and diphthongs, for which German otherwise uses "s" or "ss". This to avoid confusion with  the ''voiced alveolar fricative'', the sound of "z" in the English word "zoo", for which German always uses the letter "s". It is sometimes called "sz," however, if the letter is not available it has to be replaced by the letters "ss", and not by "sz". In Switzerland and Liechtenstein this letter is generally omitted in favor of "ss". The other additional letter are the three vowels  ''ä'', ''ö'' and ''ü'', also known in English as Umlauts. If not present on a keyboard they customarily are substituted by ''ae'', ''oe'', and ''ue''.

==History==

==History==

The modern German language is descended from the language known as Proto-Germanic, which is believed to have been spoken in central and northern Europe during the first millennium BC. Proto-Germanic was eventually divided into several different but similar languages, specifically East Germanic, West Germanic and North Germanic. [[Gothic]] is the only known East Germanic language, while North Germanic evolved into the modern Scandinavian languages.

The modern German language is descended from the language known as Proto-Germanic, which is believed to have been spoken in central and northern Europe during the first millennium BC. Proto-Germanic was eventually divided into several different but similar languages, specifically East Germanic, West Germanic and North Germanic. Gothic is the only known East Germanic language, while North Germanic evolved into the modern Scandinavian languages.

Generally, the later development of the West Germanic language can be divided in two distinct lines of descent: Upper German, spoken in Central and Southern Germany, and Low German, spoken in Northern Germany. "Low" and "Upper" are geographic terms, referring to the lowlands of Northern Germany and the more mountainous areas of Southern Germany, respectively.  

Generally, the later development of the West Germanic language can be divided in two distinct lines of descent: Upper German, spoken in Central and Southern Germany, and Low German, spoken in Northern Germany. "Low" and "Upper" are geographic terms, referring to the lowlands of Northern Germany and the more mountainous areas of Southern Germany, respectively.  

The dialects of German are classified as central and upper German. Central German dialects are Ripuarian, Central Franconian, Rhine Francoinian, Hessian, Thurinigian, Saxonian, and Berlinerish. Luxemburgish is often included as a Moselle Franconian dialect. Upper German dialects spoken in the South of the German speaking area, which includes Bavaria, Austria, Liechtenstein and northern areas of Italy, the northern part of Switzerland,  and eastern parts of France are Bavarian, East and South Franconian, Swabian, Allemanic, and Alsatian.

The dialects of German are classified as central and upper German. Central German dialects are Ripuarian, Central Franconian, Rhine Francoinian, Hessian, Thurinigian, Saxonian, and Berlinerish. Luxemburgish is often included as a Moselle Franconian dialect. Upper German dialects spoken in the South of the German speaking area, which includes Bavaria, Austria, Liechtenstein and northern areas of Italy, the northern part of Switzerland,  and eastern parts of France are Bavarian, East and South Franconian, Swabian, Allemanic, and Alsatian.

Official Minority languages in Germany are [[Frisian]], a west germanic language, [[Sorbian]], a slavic language, and [[Danish]].

Official Minority languages in Germany are [[Frisian]], a west Germanic language, [[Sorbian]], a Slavic language, and [[Danish]].

==Grammar==

==Grammar==

|-

|-

! Masculine

! Masculine

| '''Der''' Hund

| '''der''' Hund

| '''Den''' Hund

| '''den''' Hund

| '''Dem''' Hund

| '''dem''' Hund

| '''Des''' Hund'''es'''*

| '''des''' Hund'''es'''*

|-

|-

! Feminine

! Feminine

| '''Die''' Ente

| '''die''' Ente

| '''Die''' Ente

| '''die''' Ente

| '''Der''' Ente

| '''der''' Ente

| '''Der''' Ente

| '''der''' Ente

|-

|-

! Neutral

! Neutral

| '''Das''' Schwein

| '''das''' Schwein

| '''Das''' Schwein

| '''das''' Schwein

| '''Dem''' Schwein

| '''dem''' Schwein

| '''Des''' Schwein'''s'''*

| '''des''' Schwein'''s'''*

|-

|-

! Plural

! Plural

| '''Die''' Schweine

| '''die''' Schweine

| '''Die''' Schweine

| '''die''' Schweine

| '''Der''' Schweine'''n'''*

| '''den''' Schweine'''n'''*

| '''Den''' Schweine

| '''der''' Schweine

|}

|}

|-

|-

! Masculine

! Masculine

| Ein Hund

| ein Hund

| Ein'''en''' Hund

| ein'''en''' Hund

| Ein'''em''' Hund

| ein'''em''' Hund

| Ein'''es''' Hund'''es'''*

| ein'''es''' Hund'''es'''*

|-

|-

! Feminine

! Feminine

| Ein'''e''' Ente

| ein'''e''' Ente

| Ein'''e''' Ente

| ein'''e''' Ente

| Ein'''er''' Ente

| ein'''er''' Ente

| Ein'''er''' Ente

| ein'''er''' Ente

|-

|-

! Neutral

! Neutral

| Ein Schwein

| ein Schwein

| Ein Schwein

| ein Schwein

| Ein'''em''' Schwein

| ein'''em''' Schwein

| Ein'''es''' Schwein'''s'''*

| ein'''es''' Schwein'''s'''*

|}

|}

<nowiki>*With the genitive case, masculine and neutral nouns take the "s" or "es" ending, while the plural form of masculine and neutral nouns take the "n" ending in dative.</nowiki>

<nowiki>*With the genitive case, masculine and neutral nouns take the "s" or "es" ending, while the plural form of masculine and neutral nouns take the "n" ending in dative.</nowiki>

|-

|-

! Masculine

! Masculine

| Der schwarz'''e''' Hund

| der schwarz'''e''' Hund

| Den schwarz'''en''' Hund

| den schwarz'''en''' Hund

| Dem schwarz'''en''' Hund

| dem schwarz'''en''' Hund

| Des schwarz'''en''' Hund'''es'''

| des schwarz'''en''' Hund'''es'''

|-

|-

! Feminine

! Feminine

| Die gelb'''e''' Ente

| die gelb'''e''' Ente

| Die gelb'''e''' Ente

| die gelb'''e''' Ente

| Der gelb'''en''' Ente

| der gelb'''en''' Ente

| Der gelb'''en''' Ente

| der gelb'''en''' Ente

|-

|-

! Neutral

! Neutral

| Das schlau'''e''' Schwein

| das schlau'''e''' Schwein

| Das schlau'''e''' Schwein

| das schlau'''e''' Schwein

| Dem schlau'''en''' Schwein

| dem schlau'''en''' Schwein

| Des schlau'''en''' Schwein'''s'''

| des schlau'''en''' Schwein'''s'''

|-

|-

! Plural

! Plural

| Die schlau'''en''' Schweine

| die schlau'''en''' Schweine

| Die schlau'''en''' Schweine

| die schlau'''en''' Schweine

| Der schlau'''en''' Schweine'''n'''

| den schlau'''en''' Schweine'''n'''

| Den schlau'''en''' Schweine

| der schlau'''en''' Schweine

|}

|}

(schwarz = black, gelb = yellow, schlau = clever)

(schwarz = black, gelb = yellow, schlau = clever)

;1. No change  

;1. No change  

:der '''Lehrer''' (teacher) → die '''Lehrer'''

:der '''Zimmer''' (room) → die '''Zimmer'''

;2. No ending, with Umlaut

;2. No ending, with Umlaut

:der Apfel (apple) → die '''Ä'''pfel

:der Apfel (apple) → die '''Ä'''pfel

;3. Add -e

;3. Add -e

:das Jahr (year) → die Jahr'''e'''

:das Ziel (goal) → die Ziel'''e'''

;4. Add -e, with Umlaut

;4. Add -e, with Umlaut

:die Hand (hand) → die H'''ä'''nd'''e'''

:der Tanz (dance) → die T'''ä'''nz'''e'''

;5. Add -er, with Umlaut

;5. Add -er, with Umlaut

:das Tal (valley) → die T'''ä'''l'''er'''

:das Glas (glass) → die Gl'''ä'''s'''er'''

;6. Add -n or -en

;6. Add -n or -en

:die Frau (woman) → die Frau'''en'''

:die Frau (woman) → die Frau'''en'''

;7. Add -s

;7. Add -s

:das Auto (car) → die Auto'''s'''

:das Tabu (taboo) → die Tabu'''s'''

There is no logical formula to determine which plural form a given noun will take, so the plural form must also be learned as one learns a new noun.

There is no logical formula to determine which plural form a given noun will take, so the plural form must also be learned as one learns a new noun.

===Word order===

===Word order===

German word order in complex sentences is based on a so-called "bracket construction," with the most important parts being close to the beginning and at the end. In sentences with more than one verb, the second verb (or group of verbs) goes at the very end:

German word order in complex sentences is based on a so-called "bracket construction," with the most important parts being close to the beginning and at the end. In sentences with more than one verb, the remaining verb or verbs go at the very end:

''Ich <u>habe</u> ihr das Buch in der Schule <u>gegeben</u>.'' (I gave her the book at school.)

''Ich <u>habe</u> ihr das Buch in der Schule <u>gegeben</u>.'' (I gave her the book at school.)

''In der Schule <u>habe</u> ich ihr das Buch <u>gegeben</u>.''

''In der Schule <u>habe</u> ich ihr das Buch <u>gegeben</u>.''

Notice that however the constituent parts are arranged, the main verb always is placed in the second position.

This bracket construction is a defining characteristic of German word order. It is also used with modal verbs and with the future tense:

This bracket construction is a defining characteristic of German word order. It is also used with modal verbs, as well as the peculiar "seperable verbs." An example of this is the verb ''abgeben'', which means to "give up." When it is the only verb appearing in the sentence, the prefix "ab" is separated from the rest of the verb, which is conjugated and placed in the second position, and the prefix is placed at the end of the sentence:

 

Notice that however the constituent parts are arranged, the main verb always is placed in the second position, and the remaining verbs are placed at the end.

 

This structure also holds true for the so-called "separable verbs." An example of this is the verb ''abgeben'', which means to "give up." When it is the only verb appearing in the sentence, the prefix "ab" is separated from the rest of the verb, which is conjugated and placed in the second position, and the prefix is placed at the end of the sentence:

''Ich <u>gebe</u> jetzt <u>ab</u>.'' (I'm giving up now.)

''Ich <u>gebe</u> jetzt <u>ab</u>.'' (I'm giving up now.)

German has many such verbs, which are always constructed from a definable preposition and a main verb. However, when using the past tense or a modal verb, these sepearable verbs appear at the end of the sentence in the appropriate form.

German has many such verbs, which are always constructed from a definable preposition and a main verb. However, when using the past tense, future tense, or a modal verb, these separable verbs appear at the end of the sentence in the appropriate form:

 

''Er <u>wird</u> irgendwann <u>abgeben</u> <u>müssen.</u>'' (He'll have to give up sometime.)

==Bibliography==

==Bibliography==

Martin Durrell, Katrin Kohl, Gudrun Lotus, ''Essential German Grammar'', 2002.

Martin Durrell, Katrin Kohl, Gudrun Loftus, ''Essential German Grammar'', 2002.<br />

Christian Stief and Christian Stang, ''Langenscheidt German Grammar in a Nutshell'', 2002.

Christian Stief and Christian Stang, ''Langenscheidt German Grammar in a Nutshell'', 2002.

<references/>

<references/>

[[Category:Germanic languages]]

[[Category:Germanic Languages]]