Changes

see [[Annales School]]

see [[Annales School]]

===Germany===

===Germany===

Social history developed within West German historiography during the 1950's-60's as the successor to the national history discredited by [[National Socialism]].  The German brand of "history of society" - ''Gesellschaftsgeschichte'' - has been known from its beginning in the 1960s for its application of sociological and political modernization theories to German history. Modernization theory was presented by [[Hans-Ulrich Wehler]] (1931- ) and his Bielefeld School as the way to transform "traditional" German history, that is, national political history, centered on a few "great men," into an integrated and comparative history of German society encompassing societal structures outside politics. Wehler drew upon the modernization theory of Max Weber, with concepts also from Karl Marx, Otto Hintze, Gustav Schmoller, Werner Sombart and Thorstein Veblen.<ref> Roger Fletcher,  "Recent Developments in West German Historiography: the Bielefeld School and its Critics." ''German Studies Review'' 1984 7(3): 451-480. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0149-7952(198410)7%3A3%3C451%3ARDIWGH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-E in Jstor]]</ref>  

Social history developed within West German historiography during the 1950's-60's as the successor to the national history discredited by [[National Socialism]].  The German brand of "history of society" - ''Gesellschaftsgeschichte'' - has been known from its beginning in the 1960s for its application of sociological and political modernization theories to German history. Modernization theory was presented by [[Hans-Ulrich Wehler]] (1931- ) and his Bielefeld School as the way to transform "traditional" German history, that is, national political history, centered on a few "great men," into an integrated and comparative history of German society encompassing societal structures outside politics. Wehler drew upon the modernization theory of Max Weber, with concepts also from Karl Marx, Otto Hintze, Gustav Schmoller, Werner Sombart and [[Thorstein Veblen]].<ref> Roger Fletcher,  "Recent Developments in West German Historiography: the Bielefeld School and its Critics." ''German Studies Review'' 1984 7(3): 451-480. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0149-7952(198410)7%3A3%3C451%3ARDIWGH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-E in Jstor]]</ref>  

In the 1970s and early 1980s German historians of society, led by Wehler and Jürgen Kocka at the "Bielefeld school"  gained dominance in Germany by applying both modernization theories and social science methods. From the 1980s, however, they were increasingly criticized by proponents of the "cultural turn" for not incorporating culture in the history of society, for reducing politics to society, and for reducing individuals to structures. Historians of society inverted the traditional positions they criticized (on the model of Marx's inversion of Hegel). As a result, the problems pertaining to the positions criticized were not resolved but only turned on their heads. The traditional focus on individuals was inverted into a modern focus on structures, the traditional focus on culture was inverted into a modern focus on structures, and traditional emphatic understanding was inverted into modern causal explanation.<ref> Chris Lorenz, "'Won't You Tell Me, Where Have All the Good Times Gone'? On the Advantages and Disadvantages of Modernization Theory for History." ''Rethinking History'' 2006 10(2): 171-200. Issn: 1364-2529 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

In the 1970s and early 1980s German historians of society, led by Wehler and Jürgen Kocka at the "Bielefeld school"  gained dominance in Germany by applying both modernization theories and social science methods. From the 1980s, however, they were increasingly criticized by proponents of the "cultural turn" for not incorporating culture in the history of society, for reducing politics to society, and for reducing individuals to structures. Historians of society inverted the traditional positions they criticized (on the model of Marx's inversion of Hegel). As a result, the problems pertaining to the positions criticized were not resolved but only turned on their heads. The traditional focus on individuals was inverted into a modern focus on structures, the traditional focus on culture was inverted into a modern focus on structures, and traditional emphatic understanding was inverted into modern causal explanation.<ref> Chris Lorenz, "'Won't You Tell Me, Where Have All the Good Times Gone'? On the Advantages and Disadvantages of Modernization Theory for History." ''Rethinking History'' 2006 10(2): 171-200. Issn: 1364-2529 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>