Changes

More tips in learning history:

More tips in learning history:

*'''Avoid procrastination!'''  Tasks are completely more easily -- and with far higher quality -- if you start sooner.  '''Set goals for yourself''', such as completing a certain amount of work before noon, and then again before 6pm.  

*'''Avoid procrastination!'''  Tasks are completed more easily -- and with far higher quality -- if you start sooner.  '''Set goals for yourself''', such as finishing a certain amount of work before noon, and then again before 6pm.  

*'''Learn history a little each day.'''  The material is easier to digest.  Do you try to survive by eating only one meal each day?  No, we eat three meals each day and the food is easier to digest that way.  The same is true with learning history.  One hour each day for five days is much easier than five hours in one day.  Also, you'll retain the information better if you spread it out over the week.

*'''Learn history a little each day.'''  The material is easier to understand in pieces.  Do you try to survive by eating only one meal each day?  No, we eat three meals each day and the food is easier to digest that way.  The same is true with learning history.  One hour each day for five days is much easier than five hours in one day.  Also, you'll retain the information better if you spread it out over the week.

Now ponder the following riddle.  Consider this sequence: 2, 1, 2, 2, 2, 1, 2, 1, 1, ??, ??, ??, ??.  What goes in the question marks?  The answer is below.<ref>Answer: 1, 1, 1, 1 – this sequence represents the number of terms that each president (including his vice president if he died) served, starting with George Washington.</ref>

Now ponder the following riddle.  Consider this sequence: 2, 1, 2, 2, 2, 1, 2, 1, 1, ??, ??, ??, ??.  What goes in the question marks?  The answer is below.<ref>Answer: 1, 1, 1, 1 – this sequence represents the number of terms that each president (including his vice president if he died) served, starting with George Washington.</ref>

In accordance with Jackson's image as a common man, he was against a national bank.  He was also cruel to the Indians.   

In accordance with Jackson's image as a common man, he was against a national bank.  He was also cruel to the Indians.   

Although Jackson was a Democrat, which was then the main political party in the South, Jackson's stance toward the South opposed its nullification of federal law and talk of secession.

Although Jackson was a Democrat, which was then the most popular political party in the South, Jackson opposed nullification by any southern states of federal law, and also opposed talk of secession.

==The "Accidental Presidency"==

==The "Accidental Presidency"==

Recall that the Whig Party developed as an opposition party against Andrew Jackson.  By 1840 this anti-Jackson Whig Party was strong, and clever.  Moreover, the Whig Party did not have to face Andrew Jackson, who had already retired.

Recall that the Whig Party developed in opposition to Andrew Jackson.  By 1840 this anti-Jackson Whig Party was strong, and clever.  Moreover, the Whig Party did not have to face Andrew Jackson, who had already retired.

To win its first presidential election, the Whig Party ran the war hero William Henry Harrison (who had won a key battle against the Indians much earlier).  The Whig Party exploited the financial panic of 1837 and utilized some clever slogans.  The Whig Party also pulled another trick:  it nominated the Democrat John Tyler for Vice President.  That was one of only two times in history that one party has nominated as its vice president a member of the other political party (the other time was when Abraham Lincoln picked Andrew Johnson as his vice president to try to avoid the Civil War).  In 2008, the Republican candidate John McCain reportedly wanted to choose the former Democrat Joe Lieberman as his vice president, but chose Sarah Palin after learning that many within the Republican Party wanted a Republican vice presidential nominee.

To win its first presidential election, the Whig Party ran the war hero William Henry Harrison (who had won a key battle against the Indians much earlier).  The Whig Party exploited the financial panic of 1837 and utilized some clever slogans.  The Whig Party also pulled another trick:  it nominated the Democrat John Tyler for Vice President.  That was one of only two times since 1800 that one party has nominated as its vice president a member of the other political party (the other time was when Abraham Lincoln picked Andrew Johnson as his vice president to try to avoid the Civil War).  In 2008, the Republican presidential nominee John McCain reportedly wanted to choose the former Democrat Joe Lieberman as his vice president, but chose Sarah Palin after learning that many within the Republican Party wanted a Republican vice presidential nominee.

Historians say that the outcome in virtually every presidential election can be predicted by looking at how the economy is doing.  When the economy is struggling, the incumbent loses.  When the economy is thriving, the incumbent wins.  Van Buren was hurt by a poor economy, with many voters out-of-work.  Watch out for all those farmers and unemployed factory workers on Election Day!

Historians say that the outcome in virtually every presidential election can be predicted by looking at how the economy is doing.  When the economy is struggling, the incumbent loses.  When the economy is thriving, the incumbent wins.  Van Buren was hurt by a poor economy, with many voters out-of-work.  Watch out for all those farmers and unemployed factory workers on Election Day!

William Harrison became the first Whig candidate to win the presidency (in 1840).  But as an arrogant man, he insisted on participating in his inauguration without a coat or hat, despite the frigid temperatures, and he pompously spoke for over an hour to an outdoor crowd.  He caught pneumonia and died a month later.   

William Harrison became the first Whig candidate to win the presidency (in 1840).  But as an arrogant man, he insisted on participating in his inauguration without a coat or hat, despite the frigid temperatures, and he pompously spoke for over an hour to an outdoor crowd.  He caught pneumonia and died a month later.   

A president had never died in office before, and uncertainty arose.  The Constitution states that "In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President."  "Devolve" the powers did onto John Tyler, the Democrat who had long been opposed to what the Whig Party stood for.  (Only with ratification of the 25th Amendment in 1967 was it fully clarified that the vice president would actually became president, rather than merely exercise the powers of the presidency).  

A president had never died in office before, and uncertainty followed.  The Constitution states that "In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President."  "Devolve" the powers did onto John Tyler, the Democrat who had long been opposed to what the Whig Party stood for.  (Only with ratification of the 25th Amendment in 1967 was it fully clarified that the vice president would actually become president, rather than merely exercise the powers of the presidency).  

Tyler showed his true colors as a Democrat when he became "President" Tyler: he vetoed the national bank.  This infuriated the Whig Party, which had been formed in order to establish a national bank after Jackson vetoed it.  In fact, Tyler vetoed the entire Whig agenda.  Within months, the Whig Party retaliated by officially expelling him from the Whig Party, and referring to him derisively as "the man without a party" or "His Accidency."  Harrison's entire Cabinet, except for Daniel Webster (who was finishing his negotiations of an important treaty with Canada), resigned.  Henry Clay from Kentucky was one of those who resigned in disgust.

Tyler showed his true colors as a Democrat once he became "President" Tyler: he vetoed the national bank.  This infuriated the Whig Party, which had been formed in order to establish a national bank after Jackson vetoed it.  In fact, Tyler vetoed the entire Whig agenda.  Within months, the Whig Party retaliated by officially expelling him from the Whig Party, and referring to him derisively as "the man without a party" or "His Accidency."  Harrison's entire Cabinet, except for Daniel Webster (who was finishing his negotiations of an important treaty with Canada), resigned.  Henry Clay from Kentucky was one of those who resigned in disgust.

But Tyler did not care.  In 1842 he vetoed a tariff, which infuriated the Whigs further.  Eventually John Quincy Adams, the former president who was again in the House of Representatives, led an impeachment effort against Tyler based on his veto.  That effort failed, but it illustrated how little some congressmen thought of him.  No one had tried to impeach a president before.  Congress also overrode one of Tyler's vetoes with a 2/3rd majority in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, which was the first time that ever happened.

But Tyler did not care.  In 1842 he vetoed a tariff, which infuriated the Whigs further.  Eventually John Quincy Adams, the former president who was again in the House of Representatives, led an impeachment effort against Tyler based on his veto.  That effort failed, but it illustrated how little some congressmen thought of him.  No one had tried to impeach a president before.  Congress even overrode one of Tyler's vetoes with a 2/3rd majority in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, which was the first time that ever happened.

Tyler was only a "one-termer", meaning he was not reelected after his first term was over.  In fact, every president from Van Buren until the Civil War lasted only one term, as the nation became increasingly divided.

Tyler was only a "one-termer", meaning he was not reelected after his first term was over.  In fact, every president from Van Buren until the Civil War lasted only one term, as the nation became increasingly divided.

America continued to expand, and eventually this caused conflict with Mexico, which became free from Spain in 1821.  Texas (an area much larger than the State of Texas today) was part of Mexico's territory.

America continued to expand, and eventually this caused conflict with Mexico, which became free from Spain in 1821.  Texas (an area much larger than the State of Texas today) was part of Mexico's territory.

Mexico began to give American citizens free land if they became Mexican citizens and encouraged their friends to do the same.  Thousands of settlers from the United States became Mexican citizens.

Mexico began to give American citizens free land if they became Mexican citizens and encouraged their friends to do the same.  Thousands of settlers left the United States to become Mexican citizens.

But in 1836, settlers what is now Texas revolted against Mexico.  They declared that Texas was independent from Mexico, and drafted their own constitution.   

But in 1836, settlers what is now Texas revolted against Mexico.  They declared that Texas was independent from Mexico, and drafted their own constitution.   

In the famous Battle of the Alamo, a few thousand soldiers from Mexico defeated just 165 or so Texans at the Alamo (including Davey Crockett, former congressman from Tennessee), and massacred all of them.  This battle became famous, as did the cry "Remember the Alamo!"

In the famous Battle of the Alamo, a few thousand soldiers from Mexico defeated just 165 or so Texans at the Alamo (including Davey Crockett, a famous former congressman from Tennessee), and massacred all of them.  This battle became famous, as did the cry "Remember the Alamo!"

Shortly thereafter, Texas wrote a formal declaration of independence.  Eager to gain land and fame, many Americans moved to Texas and helped defeat the Mexicans.  Texas became the independent "Lone Star Republic."

Shortly thereafter, Texas wrote a formal declaration of independence.  Eager to gain land and fame, many Americans moved to Texas and helped defeat the Mexicans.  Texas became the independent "Lone Star Republic."

In 1842, the United States resolved some minor disputes with Canada (then still a British colony) over the location of the U.S.-Canadian border.  Known as the Webster-Ashburton Treaty, this resolved the location of the northern border of Maine, agreed on the location of the border in the Great Lakes (and shared use of those Lakes), and affirmed the use of the 49 degrees latitude as the border heading west.  Daniel Webster, then the Secretary of State (who otherwise was a prominent Senator), signed the Treaty for the United States and the U.S. Senate ratified it as required by the Constitution.

In 1842, the United States resolved some minor disputes with Canada (then still a British colony) over the location of the U.S.-Canadian border.  Known as the Webster-Ashburton Treaty, this resolved the location of the northern border of Maine, agreed on the location of the border in the Great Lakes (and shared use of those Lakes), and affirmed the use of the 49 degrees latitude as the border heading west.  Daniel Webster, then the Secretary of State (who otherwise was a prominent Senator), signed the Treaty for the United States and the U.S. Senate ratified it as required by the Constitution.

At around the same time settlers began to move westward in large groups, traveling on the Oregon Trail.  Beginning in 1843, Americans became fascinated with the Oregon territory, and 1000 pioneers traveled all the way from Missouri to Willamette Valley (a trip that took 4 to 6 months then).  The Oregon Trail stretched for 2000 miles and many settlers spent a full six months traveling along it.  Missionaries traveled in order to minister to the Indians far and wide.   

Around the same time settlers began to move westward in large groups, traveling on the Oregon Trail.  Beginning in 1843, Americans became fascinated with the Oregon territory, and 1000 pioneers traveled all the way from Missouri to Willamette Valley (a trip that took 4 to 6 months then).  The Oregon Trail stretched for 2000 miles and many settlers spent a full six months traveling along it.  Missionaries traveled in order to minister to the Indians far and wide.   

Others went westward in a search for gold, and the "gold rush" that began in 1848 and hit a fever pitch in 1849, attracting many to California (the football team the "San Francisco 49ers" is named after those settlers).

Others went westward in a search for gold, and the "gold rush" that began in 1848 and hit a fever pitch in 1849, attracting many to California (the football team the "San Francisco 49ers" is named after those settlers).

Along with the expansion and migration came great social change in the older portions of the United States.  Utopian communities thrived in the 1840s to pursue idealistic societies, often based on common religious beliefs and sharing homes and property.  The homeschooling movement today could be compared with the movements in the 1840s, though homeschooling is more of a concept than a centralized community having shared property.  Examples of Utopian communities in the 1840s (and earlier) were the Shakers, Brook Farm, the Rappites, and the Oneida Community:<ref name="Utopian">http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/amana/utopia.htm</ref>

Along with the expansion and migration came great social change in the older portions of the United States.  Utopian communities thrived in the 1840s to pursue idealistic societies, often based on common religious beliefs and sharing homes and property.  The homeschooling movement today could be compared with the movements in the 1840s, though homeschooling is more of a concept than a centralized community having shared property.  Examples of Utopian communities in the 1840s (and earlier) were the Shakers, Brook Farm, the Rappites, and the Oneida Community:<ref name="Utopian">http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/amana/utopia.htm</ref>

* The Shakers, whose formal name was the United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Coming, believed in communal living (people sharing each other's homes and property), productive labor, celibacy, pacifism, simplicity, and ritualistic dancing and shaking during services.  It was founded by an Englishwoman in 1758, split off from the Quakers in 1772, and grew to 6,000 members in America before the Civil War.  The Shakers rejected slavery and other aspects of American life, and had thriving communities in Enfield, Connecticut and in Berkshire County, Massachusetts.  Other Shaker communities existed in Kentucky, New Hampshire, New York (New Lebanon) ... and Maine (New Glochester), where there are Shakers to this day!

* The Shakers, whose formal name was the United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Coming, believed in communal living (people sharing each other's homes and property), productive labor, pacifism, simplicity, and ritualistic dancing and shaking during services.  It was founded by an Englishwoman in 1758, split off from the Quakers in 1772, and grew to 6,000 members in America before the Civil War.  The Shakers rejected slavery and other aspects of American life, and had thriving communities in Enfield, Connecticut and in Berkshire County, Massachusetts.  Other Shaker communities existed in Kentucky, New Hampshire, New York (New Lebanon) ... and Maine (New Glochester), where there are Shakers to this day!

* Brook Farm was a Utopian community based on "transcendentalism", which was a philosophy started by Immanuel Kant in the late 1700s that emphasized man's ability to "transcend" experience and pursue a lifestyle of simple living, self-reliance, and rejection of industrialization.  This movement took inspiration from Ralph Waldo Emerson, who was the leading American proponent of this philosophy (without himself living in a Utopian community), and his friend Henry David Thoreau, who did spend some time living in simplicity on "Walden's Pond." (Occasionally he would sneak over to his friend Emerson's house to enjoy a good meal and better surroundings!) Thoreau also became famous for his book advocating "civil disobedience" to laws and authority.  Brook Farm itself was located in Suffolk County, Massachusetts and was led by a former Unitarian minister.  The community provided to all members, their children and family dependents the following: housing, fuel, wages, clothing and food.  It also had schools at all levels before college.  This project ended in failure due to financial difficulties and even a bitter lawsuit by investors attempting to recover their money.  This community never exceeded 120 persons, making it smaller than most homeschooling communities today.

* Brook Farm was a Utopian community based on "transcendentalism" - a philosophy started by Immanuel Kant in the late 1700s that emphasized man's ability to "transcend" experience and pursue a lifestyle of simple living, self-reliance, and rejection of industrialization.  This movement took inspiration from Ralph Waldo Emerson, who was the leading American proponent of this philosophy (without himself living in a Utopian community), and his friend Henry David Thoreau, who did spend some time living in simplicity on "Walden's Pond." (Occasionally he would sneak over to his friend Emerson's house to enjoy a good meal and better surroundings!) Thoreau also became famous for his book advocating "civil disobedience" to laws and authority.  Brook Farm itself was located in Suffolk County, Massachusetts and was led by a former Unitarian minister.  The community provided to all members, their children and family dependents the following: housing, fuel, wages, clothing and food.  It also had schools at all levels before college.  This project ended in failure due to financial difficulties and even a bitter lawsuit by investors attempting to recover their money.  This community never exceeded 120 persons, making it smaller than most homeschooling communities today.

* The Rappites, also known as The Harmony Society, were founded by Johann Georg Rapp and first consisted of immigrants from Germany seeking religious freedom in America.  They settled in Butler County, Pennsylvania, called Harmony, and believed that the Bible was humanity's sole authority.  Similar to the Shakers, the Rappites required celibacy also led a communal life without individual possessions.  Frederick Rapp, George Rapp's adopted son, transformed the economy of Harmony from subsistence agriculture to gradual diversified manufacturing, and by 1814 the Society was thriving with 700 members and a town of 130 homes and factories.  The products they produced, ranging from textiles to woolens to wine and whiskey, were highly valued by other Americans for their quality.  The Rappites continued to succeed economically, and repeatedly outgrew their towns, moving to Indiana (after selling their first town for $100,000 to Mennonites) and later back to Pennsylvania.  They peaked in 1866 and, after several schisms, disbanded in 1905.  Their sturdy buildings remain to this day.

* The Rappites, also known as The Harmony Society, were founded by Johann Georg Rapp and first consisted of immigrants from Germany seeking religious freedom in America.  They settled in Butler County, Pennsylvania, called Harmony, and believed that the Bible was humanity's sole authority.  Similar to the Shakers, the Rappites required led a communal life without individual possessions.  Frederick Rapp, George Rapp's adopted son, transformed the economy of Harmony from subsistence agriculture to gradual diversified manufacturing, and by 1814 the Society was thriving with 700 members and a town of 130 homes and factories.  The products they produced, ranging from textiles to woolens to wine and whiskey, were highly valued by other Americans for their quality.  The Rappites continued to succeed economically, and repeatedly outgrew their towns, moving to Indiana (after selling their first town for $100,000 to Mennonites) and later back to Pennsylvania.  They peaked in 1866 and, after several schisms, disbanded in 1905.  Their sturdy buildings remain to this day.

* The Oneida Community in Madison County, New York, was an abolitionist movement founded by the minister John Humphreys Noyes.  He preached the radical view that perfection was attainable in this life, and his followers became known as "Perfectionists".  Unfortunately, he also preached a concept of "complex marriage," whereby men and women married in groups such that every man in the group was married to every woman in the group, and children were raised by everyone.  "Bible communism" resulted in no individual property.  A 1879 meeting of ministers in Syracuse, New York, condemned the settlement, and unrest caused Noyes to flee to Canada.

* The Oneida Community in Madison County, New York, was an abolitionist movement founded by the minister John Humphreys Noyes.  He preached the radical view that perfection was attainable in this life, and his followers became known as "Perfectionists".  Unfortunately, he also preached a concept of "complex marriage," whereby men and women married in groups such that every man in the group was married to every woman in the group, and children were raised by everyone.  "Bible communism" resulted in no individual property.  A 1879 meeting of ministers in Syracuse, New York, condemned the settlement, and unrest caused Noyes to flee to Canada.

In addition to the Utopian communities, there were key social and religious movements in or around the 1840s that resulted from the culmination of the Second Great Awakening, which swept America from 1790 to 1840:

In addition to the Utopian communities, there were key social and religious movements in or around the 1840s that resulted from the culmination of the Second Great Awakening, which swept America from 1790 to 1840:

* the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (the Mormon Church), the only major church founded in America, was established in 1830 by Joseph Smith in western New York.  He then moved to Ohio, and then Nauvoo, Illinois, where it thrived so much that it became the largest town in Illinois in 1844 (even bigger than Chicago).  The movement banned alcohol and emphasized hard work and entrepreneurship.  But in 1844 an anti-Mormon newspaper (the "Nauvoo Expositor") began harshly criticizing the church, and city council responded by shutting down the newspaper, which in turn led to a backlash causing the imprisonment of Mayor Joseph Smith.  While in jail, Joseph Smith (and his brother) was killed by a mob that was unlawfully allowed to enter the prison.  Brigham Young became the next leader of this church within a few years, and led the 70,000-person Mormon community on a 1,300-mile migration to establish a new state in the west, then part of Mexico but now Utah.  Today the Mormon Church is the fourth largest church denomination in the United States, after the Catholics, Baptists and Methodists.<ref>http://www.ncccusa.org/news/080215yearbook1.html</ref>  One of its spectacular temples is located just north of D.C., close to its "Beltway".

* the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (the Mormon Church), the only major church founded in America, was established in 1830 by Joseph Smith in western New York.  He then moved to Ohio, and then Nauvoo, Illinois, where it thrived so much that it became the largest town in Illinois in 1844 (even bigger than Chicago).  The movement banned alcohol and emphasized hard work and entrepreneurship.  But in 1844 an anti-Mormon newspaper (the "Nauvoo Expositor") began harshly criticizing the church, and city council responded by shutting down the newspaper, which in turn led to a backlash causing the imprisonment of Mayor Joseph Smith.  While in jail, Joseph Smith (and his brother) was killed by a mob that was unlawfully allowed to enter the prison.  Brigham Young became the next leader of this church within a few years, and led the 70,000-person Mormon community on a 1,300-mile migration to establish a new state in the west, then part of Mexico but now Utah.  Today the Mormon Church is the fourth largest church denomination in the United States, after the Catholics, Baptists and Methodists.<ref>http://www.ncccusa.org/news/080215yearbook1.html</ref>  One of its spectacular temples is located just north of D.C., close to the "Beltway" (highway 495 that loops around D.C.).

* The Seventh Day Adventist Church began 1844, when a prediction of the end of the world based on a biblical interpretation did not happen (the so-called "Great Disappointment").  This new Christian religion emphasizes observance of the Sabbath on Saturday (hence its name), adherence to the Bible, and preparation for the second coming of Christ.  The Seventh Day Adventists also developed an approach to good health that included building hospitals, such as the large hospital located in Hackettstown, New Jersey.

* The Seventh Day Adventist Church began 1844, when a prediction of the end of the world based on a biblical interpretation did not happen (the so-called "Great Disappointment").  This new Christian religion emphasizes observance of the Sabbath on Saturday (hence its name), adherence to the Bible, and preparation for the second coming of Christ.  The Seventh Day Adventists also developed an approach to good health that included building hospitals, such as the large hospital located in Hackettstown, New Jersey.

* In 1840, the first anti-slavery party (called the "Liberty Party") formed.  It lasted until 1848, when it merged with opponents of slavery in the Whig and Democratic Parties in order to form another anti-slavery party, the stronger Free-Soil party.

* In 1840, the first anti-slavery party (called the "Liberty Party") formed.  It lasted until 1848, when it merged with opponents of slavery in the Whig and Democratic Parties in order to form another anti-slavery party, the stronger Free-Soil party.

* In 1842, the union workers' movement obtained a key court ruling in their favor from the Massachusetts Supreme Court, in ''[[Commonwealth v. Hunt]]''.  That decision held that it was legal for workers to organize a union and to strike. Union power was greatly increased by this ability to strike (and shut down a factory) when the employer does not give into union demands.  Some blame the collapse of the American automobile industry today and the current depression in Michigan on an abuse by unions of their great power.  The unionization of ''government'' workers' is a national controversy in February 2011, as the Wisconsin Governor seeks to terminate the basic union power of  "collective bargaining"for its government workers.

* In 1842, the union workers' movement obtained a key court ruling in their favor from the Massachusetts Supreme Court, in ''[[Commonwealth v. Hunt]]''.  That decision held that it was legal for workers to organize a union and to strike. Union power was greatly increased by this ability to strike (and shut down a factory) when the employer does not give into union demands.  Some blame the collapse of the American automobile industry today and the current depression in Michigan on an abuse by unions of their great power.  The unionization of ''government'' workers recently became a national controversy, as the Wisconsin Governor seeks to terminate the basic union power of  "collective bargaining" for its ''government'' workers.

==James K. Polk and War with Mexico==

==James K. Polk and War with Mexico==

The Democrats officially won back the presidency with James Polk, who was supported by the still-popular, but retired Andrew Jackson.  Polk was the hardest-working president ever, and even died from exhaustion soon after leaving office despite serving only one term.  He was also the first "dark horse" candidate, which means that no one expected to win even the nomination of his Democratic Party.  He was nominated to run for president only after the leading contenders were all rejected by the delegates to the Democratic National Convention.  In fact, Polk had gone to the convention hoping at most to be the vice presidential candidate for Martin Van Buren, but the former President Andrew Jackson and the Democratic Party favored Polk instead of renominating Van Buren.

The Democrats officially won back the presidency with James Polk, who was supported by the still-popular but retired Andrew Jackson.  Polk was the hardest-working president ever, and even died from exhaustion soon after leaving office despite serving only one term.  He was also the first "dark horse" candidate, which means that no one expected to win even the nomination of his Democratic Party.  He was nominated to run for president only after the leading contenders were all rejected by the delegates to the Democratic National Convention.  In fact, Polk had gone to the convention hoping at most to be the vice presidential candidate for Martin Van Buren, but the former President Andrew Jackson and the Democratic Party favored Polk instead of renominating Van Buren.

Polk's opponent in the presidential race was the Whig Party leader Henry Clay, who scoffed at how little-known Polk was.  Clay and his supporters even made a campaign slogan of the rhetorical question, "Who is Polk?"<ref>http://www.americaslibrary.gov/cgi-bin/page.cgi/aa/presidents/polk/horse_1</ref>  Polk responded to the criticism by championing Manifest Destiny (and expansion of the nation's territory).  He supported both annexing Texas (which would become a slave state) to acquire southern support and adding Oregon as a free state to gain northern votes.  The issue of Texas had become so important to Americans that Polk won on a platform of annexing Texas to the United States, and more generally on his pro-expansion position.   

Polk's opponent in the presidential race was the Whig Party leader Henry Clay, who scoffed at how little-known Polk was.  Clay and his supporters even made a campaign slogan of the rhetorical question, "Who is Polk?"<ref>http://www.americaslibrary.gov/cgi-bin/page.cgi/aa/presidents/polk/horse_1</ref>  Polk responded to the criticism by championing Manifest Destiny (and expansion of the nation's territory).  He supported both annexing Texas (which would become a slave state), in order to obtain support by southerners, adding Oregon as a free state, in order to gain northern votes.  The issue of Texas had become so important to Americans that Polk won on a platform of annexing Texas to the United States, and more generally on his pro-expansion position.   

Polk's presidency had these achievements:

Polk's presidency had these achievements:

*reduced tariffs

*reduced tariffs

*reestablished an independent treasury (bank)

*reestablished an independent treasury (bank)

*admitted Iowa as a free state in 1846 (under the Missouri Compromise), with Iowa having the highest percentage of farmland of any state

*admitted Iowa as a free state in 1846 (under the Missouri Compromise), with Iowa having the highest percentage of farmland of any State

*set off the gold rush by announcing there was gold in California (1849)

*set off the gold rush by announcing there was gold in California (1849)

To Polk's credit, he really did what he said he would, unlike most politicians.  He achieved the greatest territorial expansion of the United States (excluding the later acquisition of Alaska).  Polk acquired the territory covered by the future states of Texas, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Washington, and Oregon, and portions of Oklahoma, Colorado, Kansas, Wyoming, and Montana.

To Polk's credit, he really did what he said he would, unlike most politicians.  He achieved the greatest territorial expansion of the United States (excluding the later acquisition of Alaska).  Polk acquired the territory covered by the future states of Texas, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Washington, and Oregon, and portions of Oklahoma, Colorado, Kansas, Wyoming, and Montana.

Even though Texas won its own independence from Mexico in 1836, President Martin Van Buren did not annex Texas to the United States because Mexico had threatened war should annexation happen.  President John Tyler negotiated a Treaty of Annexation, but that caused Mexico to cut off diplomatic relations.  The Senate refused to ratify this Treaty.  Only after Polk won the presidential election of 1844 by promising to annex Texas was the Senate willing to ratify the Treaty, which the Senate did just prior to Polk's inauguration.  Texas then joined the United States on December 29, 1845.

Even though Texas won its own independence from Mexico in 1836, President Martin Van Buren had not annexed Texas to the United States because Mexico had threatened war against the United States if it ever annexed Texas.  President John Tyler negotiated a Treaty of Annexation, but that caused Mexico to cut off diplomatic relations.  The Senate refused to ratify this Treaty.  Only after Polk won the presidential election of 1844 by promising to annex Texas was the Senate willing to ratify the Treaty, which the Senate did just prior to Polk's inauguration.  Texas then joined the United States on December 29, 1845.

Mexico did not declare war as it threatened, but the relationship remained very tense and the border between Texas and Mexico was hotly disputed.  Texas claimed that its state included much of (what is today) New Mexico and Colorado, and the western and southern portions of (what is today) Texas itself.  Mexico claimed that Texas was much smaller, with its border on the Nueces River slightly north of the Rio Grande.

Mexico did not declare war as it threatened, but the relationship remained very tense and the border between Texas and Mexico was hotly disputed.  Texas claimed that its territory included much of (what is today) New Mexico and Colorado, and the western and southern portions of (what is today) Texas itself.  Mexico claimed that Texas was much smaller, with its border on the Nueces River slightly north of the Rio Grande.

President Polk wanted all the land for the United States.  In July 1845, he sent the commander of the U.S. Army in Texas, Zachary Taylor, to take his troops into the disputed land between the Nueces and Rio Grande rivers. In November, Polk sent Congressman John Slidell to Mexico in order to purchase the disputed area, and acquire (what is now) New Mexico and California.  This effort, known as the Slidell mission, had failed by May 1846.

President Polk wanted all the land for the United States.  In July 1845, he sent the commander of the U.S. Army in Texas, Zachary Taylor, to take his troops into the disputed land between the Nueces and Rio Grande rivers. In November, Polk sent Congressman John Slidell to Mexico in order to purchase the disputed area, and acquire (what is now) New Mexico and California.  This effort, known as the Slidell mission, had failed by May 1846.

Following the failure of Slidell's mission in May 1846, Polk tried a different approach:  find a reason to declare a war.  Polk told Congress that Mexico had attacked Taylor's army on American (Texas) soil, shedding American blood there.  Congress reacted by giving Polk the declaration of war Polk sought, on May 13, 1846.  Ever since then it has been disputed where the American blood was actually shed, making this one of the big mysteries of American history.  Was the first conflict on undisputed American soil, meaning that Mexico was wrong, or on Mexican soil, meaning that Americans were the aggressor?  The official account of the United States Department of State blames ... the United States:<ref>http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/dwe/16336.htm</ref>

Following the failure of Slidell's mission in May 1846, Polk tried a different approach:  find a reason to declare a war.  Polk told Congress that Mexico had attacked Taylor's army on American (Texas) soil, shedding American blood there.  Congress reacted by giving Polk the declaration of war Polk sought, on May 13, 1846.  Ever since it has been disputed where the American blood was actually shed, making this one of the big mysteries of American history.  Was the first conflict on undisputed American soil, meaning that Mexico was wrong, or on Mexican soil, meaning that Americans were the aggressor?  The official account of the United States Department of State blames ... the United States:<ref>http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/dwe/16336.htm</ref>

:The President neglected to inform Congress, however, that the Mexicans had used force only after Taylor's troops had positioned themselves on the banks of the Rio Grande River, which was effectively Mexican territory.  

:The President neglected to inform Congress, however, that the Mexicans had used force only after Taylor's troops had positioned themselves on the banks of the Rio Grande River, which was effectively Mexican territory.  

But that account is debatable, and may simply reflect a modern tendency by the United States to apologize for everything.  Truth be told, President Polk was not otherwise known to be a liar.  However, a congressman at the time, Abraham Lincoln, was a Whig (and thus opposed to Polk), and he also questioned whether the blood had really been shed on American soil.  In December 1847, Lincoln introduced the "Spot Resolutions" into Congress to challenge the "spot" claimed by Polk to start the war.  The Whigs opposed the war throughout its two-year duration; so did leading intellectuals in Massachusetts like Henry David Thoreau.

But that account is debatable, and may simply reflect a modern tendency of some United States officials to apologize for everything.  Truth be told, President Polk was not known to be a liar, so it is doubtful he lied about this.  However, a congressman at the time, Abraham Lincoln, who was a Whig (and thus opposed to Polk), also questioned whether the blood had really been shed on American soil.  In December 1847, Lincoln introduced the "Spot Resolutions" into Congress to challenge the "spot" claimed by Polk to start the war.   

 

The Whigs opposed the Mexican War throughout its two-year duration; so did leading intellectuals in Massachusetts like Henry David Thoreau.

'''Mystery:  Where was the American blood shed that started the Mexican War, on American or Mexican soil?'''

'''Mystery:  Where was the American blood shed that started the Mexican War, on American or Mexican soil?'''

'''Debate:  Is it ever justified for a President to lie to Congress to accomplish a goal sought by Americans?'''

'''Debate:  Is it ever justified for a President to lie to Congress to accomplish a goal sought by Americans?'''

To win the Mexican War, the U.S. Army pushed far into Mexico territory.  In September 1847, the United States captured Mexico City.  Then Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the Department of State and Polk's emissary to negotiate a peace treaty, began discussions with the Mexican Government just as Slidell had done the prior year.  President Polk grew angry with Trist, however, for offering terms of peace that Polk thought were too generous to Mexico.  Meanwhile, Trist had become a close friend of General Winfield Scott, who was a member of the opposite Whig Party and thought to be planning to run against Polk for the presidency. Worse, the war caused the Democrats (who wanted to expand slavery) to demand for complete annexation of Mexico. 

To win the Mexican War, the U.S. Army pushed far into Mexico territory.  In September 1847, the United States captured Mexico City.  Then Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the Department of State and Polk's emissary to negotiate a peace treaty, began discussions with the Mexican Government just as Slidell had done the prior year.  President Polk grew angry with Trist, however, for offering terms of peace that Polk thought were too generous to Mexico.  Meanwhile, Trist had become a close friend of General Winfield Scott, who was a member of the opposite Whig Party and thought to be planning to run against Polk for the presidency. Worse, the war caused the Democrats (who wanted to expand slavery) to demand complete annexation to the United States of Mexico itself!

Polk essentially fired Trist in October, demanding that he return to Washington, D.C.  Trist ignored this "recall order" and entered into the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, signing it with Mexico in Mexico City on February 2, 1848.  This Treaty provided that:  

Polk fired Trist in October by demanding that he return to Washington, D.C.  But Trist ignored this "recall order" and entered into the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, signing it with Mexico in Mexico City on February 2, 1848.  This Treaty provided that:  

*the Texas-Mexico border would be set at the Rio Grande River as Polk originally sought

*the Texas-Mexico border would be set at the Rio Grande River as Polk originally sought

Polk was unhappy with the terms of this Treaty.  He wanted even more Mexican territory.  But he felt he had no choice other than submit this Treaty to the U.S. Senate for ratification, which it did on March 10, 1848 by a margin of 38 to 14.  The 2/3rd minimum required for ratification was 2/3rd of 52, or 35.  The Treaty was ratified by a margin of only 4 votes.

Polk was unhappy with the terms of this Treaty.  He wanted even more Mexican territory.  But he felt he had no choice other than submit this Treaty to the U.S. Senate for ratification, which it did on March 10, 1848 by a margin of 38 to 14.  The 2/3rd minimum required for ratification was 2/3rd of 52, or 35.  The Treaty was ratified by a margin of only 4 votes.

Soon after the war began in 1846, Congressman David Wilmot introduced a rider (Aug. 1846) to an appropriations bill stipulating that "neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist" in any territory acquired from this war. Southern senators (especially South Carolina Senator John Calhoun) blocked this "Wilmot Proviso," but its concept was so powerful that it inspired the abolitionists all the way until (and through) the Civil War, much as the pro-life movement inspires people today.  The Wilmot Proviso to stop slavery became as influential as the movement to overturn ''Roe v. Wade'' (abortion) is today.

In August 1846, soon after the war began, Congressman David Wilmot introduced a "rider" (unrelated amendment) to an appropriations bill stipulating that "neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist" in any territory acquired from this war. Southern senators (especially South Carolina Senator John Calhoun) blocked this "Wilmot Proviso," but its concept was so powerful that it inspired the abolitionists all the way until (and through) the Civil War, much as the pro-life movement inspires people today.  The Wilmot Proviso to stop slavery became as influential as the movement to overturn ''Roe v. Wade'' to stop abortion is today.

In addition to all of Polk's accomplishments in adding territory, he also had a habit if seeing every single visitor, no matter who he was, who came to the White House!  No wonder it exhausted him.  Still a young man, Polk died shortly after leaving office of an exhaustion-induced illness.

In addition to all of Polk's accomplishments in adding territory, he also had a habit if seeing every single visitor, no matter who he was, who came to the White House!  No wonder it exhausted him.  Still a young man, Polk died shortly after leaving office of an exhaustion-induced illness.

The Whig Party was helped in the election of 1848 by a split in the Democratic Party over the slavery issue.  Voters who opposed slavery had abandoned the otherwise pro-slavery Democrats.  The anti-slavery Democrats were known as the "Barnburners" (i.e., burning down their own "barn" or political party by leaving), while the loyal Democrats were known as "Hunkers" (i.e., their mindset was to "hunker down" and stay the pro-slavery course).

The Whig Party was helped in the election of 1848 by a split in the Democratic Party over the slavery issue.  Voters who opposed slavery had abandoned the otherwise pro-slavery Democrats.  The anti-slavery Democrats were known as the "Barnburners" (i.e., burning down their own "barn" or political party by leaving), while the loyal Democrats were known as "Hunkers" (i.e., their mindset was to "hunker down" and stay the pro-slavery course).

Zachary Taylor did not last long.  He died after only one year in office.  His sole contribution was to encourage New Mexico and California to apply for admission to the United States as a free (rather than slave) state.  Remember that Taylor was a Whig, and the Whig Party tended to side with the northerners and against slavery.

Zachary Taylor did not last long.  He died after only one year in office.  His sole contribution was to encourage New Mexico and California to apply for admission to the United States as free (rather than slave) states.  Remember that Taylor was a Whig, and the Whig Party tended to side with the northerners and against slavery.

Taylor's vice president, Millard Fillmore, succeeded him in office, the second time a vice president replaced a president due to his death.  Fillmore, who was from New York, was an average American who had been born in a log cabin, and who succeeded through hard work.<ref>http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/mf13.html</ref>  He then played a key part in passing the Compromise of 1850, one of the most important pieces of legislation in the entire 19th century.

Taylor's vice president, Millard Fillmore, succeeded him in office, the second time in American history that a vice president replaced a president due to his death.  Fillmore, who was from New York, was an average American who had been born in a log cabin, and who succeeded through hard work.<ref>http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/mf13.html</ref>  He then played a key part in passing the Compromise of 1850, one of the most important pieces of legislation in the entire 19th century.

The Compromise of 1850 admitted California as a state, and established that the South had the right to bring slaves into the United State's Southwest Territories.  The Compromise also abolished the slave trade in D.C., although slavery itself was allowed to continue.  Specifically, this Compromise enacted the following in a series of separate laws:

The Compromise of 1850 admitted California into the United States, and established that the South had the right to bring slaves into the United State's Southwest Territories.  The Compromise also abolished the slave trade in D.C., although slavery itself was allowed to continue.  Specifically, this Compromise enacted the following in a series of separate laws:

*admitted California as a free state

*admitted California as a free state

*Texas received $10M to pay off its debt in return for accepting a narrower western boundary and give up claims to New Mexico and territory that became other states

*Texas received $10M to pay off its debt in return for accepting a narrower western boundary and give up claims to New Mexico and territory that became other states

Senators Henry Clay, Daniel Webster and Stephen Douglas argued for this Compromise; South Carolina (and pro-slavery) Senator John Calhoun opposed it.<ref>http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/today/mar18.html</ref>  This was the last great issue for the longtime Senators Calhoun, Clay and Webster.  Calhoun died a few weeks later.

Senators Henry Clay, Daniel Webster and Stephen Douglas argued for this Compromise; South Carolina (and pro-slavery) Senator John Calhoun opposed it.<ref>http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/today/mar18.html</ref>  This was the last great issue for the elderly Senators Calhoun, Clay and Webster, each of whom was near the end of their long careers in the Senate.  Calhoun died a few weeks later.

The Fugitive Slave Act was particularly offensive to northerners and especially outrageous to abolitionists.  It amended the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 in order to appoint federal commissioners to catch slaves who fled to northern states, without giving them due process.

The Fugitive Slave Act was particularly offensive to northerners and especially outrageous to abolitionists.  It amended the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 in order to appoint federal commissioners to catch slaves who fled to northern states, without giving them due process.

In unrelated achievements during the Fillmore Administration, he also:

In unrelated achievements during the Fillmore Administration, President Fillmore also:

*sent Matthew Perry to Japan to negotiate a treaty allowing open borders.  The mission was successful.

*sent Matthew Perry to Japan to negotiate a treaty allowing open borders.  The mission was successful.

*signed the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty in 1850, in which the United States agreed with Britain that neither nation would obtain exclusive control over an inter-oceanic canal joining the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

*signed the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty in 1850, in which the United States agreed with Britain that neither nation would obtain exclusive control over an inter-oceanic canal joining the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

*benefited from the development of a new type of ship called the Clipper.  These ships were longer and faster than their predecessors.  They greatly enhanced shipping and increased the trade in port cities.

*saw the development of a new type of ship called the Clipper.  These ships were longer and faster than their predecessors.  They greatly enhanced shipping and increased the trade in port cities.

==President Franklin Pierce and the Kansas-Nebraska Act==

==President Franklin Pierce and the Kansas-Nebraska Act==

The slavery issue had become so divisive by the election of 1852 that it was almost impossible for a political party to nominate anyone with strong views on it.  Instead, political parties turned more to "dark horse" nominees whose positions on slavery were unknown, and thus not so objectionable to one side or the other.  That enabled them to appear to be more electable ''without'' having taken a stand.

The slavery issue had become so divisive by the election of 1852 that it was almost impossible for a political party even to nominate anyone for president who had strong views about it.  Instead, political parties turned more to "dark horse" nominees whose positions on slavery were unknown, and thus not so objectionable to one side or the other.  That enabled them to appear to be more electable because they had ''not'' announced their positions on slavery.

The Whig Party, with its concentration in the North, collapsed over disagreement about the slavery issue, as the pro- and anti-slavery members went in different directions.  The Democratic Party, which was more the party of the South, nominated the dark horse candidate Franklin Pierce in 1852.  He had been quietly pro-slavery, and he won the presidential election because the Whig Party was no longer strong enough to oppose him.

The Whig Party, with its concentration in the North, collapsed over disagreement about the slavery issue, as the pro- and anti-slavery members went in different directions.  The Democratic Party, which was more the party of the South, nominated the dark horse candidate Franklin Pierce in 1852.  He had been quietly pro-slavery, and he won the presidential election because the Whig Party was no longer strong enough to oppose him.

In other words, the Republican Party of today was founded in 1854 on the moral grounds of ending slavery.  Early leaders of the Republican Party included the abolitionists Charles Sumner and George Julian, the Free-Soiler Salmon Chase, and conservative members of the Whig Party.

In other words, the Republican Party of today was founded in 1854 on the moral grounds of ending slavery.  Early leaders of the Republican Party included the abolitionists Charles Sumner and George Julian, the Free-Soiler Salmon Chase, and conservative members of the Whig Party.

Pierce would only last one term as president.  In 1854 the future President James Buchanan was working as a diplomat (which enabled him to avoid divisive domestic issues).  As a diplomat Buchanan issued the Ostend Manifesto, in which he told Spain sell Cuba to the United States or lose it by force.  This was a failure and caused negative feelings.

Pierce would only last one term as president.  In 1854 the future President James Buchanan was working as a diplomat (which enabled him to avoid speaking out about the slavery issue).  As a diplomat Buchanan issued the Ostend Manifesto, in which he told Spain sell Cuba to the United States or lose it by force.  This was a failure and caused negative feelings, but Buchanan later became president anyway.

=="Bleeding Kansas"==

=="Bleeding Kansas"==

Almost immediately after enactment of popular sovereignty in the Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854), it was put to the test in 1855 in Kansas. Civil war in Kansas broke out between free and slave forces. In early 1856, pro-slavery forces burned down the "Free State Hotel" and destroyed the offices and presses of antislavery newspapers. A man was killed.  

Almost immediately after enactment of popular sovereignty in the Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854), it was put to the test in 1855 in Kansas. Civil war in Kansas broke out between free and slave forces. In early 1856, pro-slavery forces burned down the "Free State Hotel" and destroyed the offices and presses of antislavery newspapers. A man was killed.  

In retaliation, the fanatical white John Brown took four of his sons and two others and went to Pottawatomie in Kansas, and executed five (5) pro-slavery colonists.  This event became known as the Pottawatomie Massacre.  Unlike most abolitionists, Brown supported violent action against slavery.  As time went on, more and more blood was shed in Kansas.

In retaliation, a fanatical white man named John Brown took four of his sons and two others and went to Pottawatomie in Kansas, and executed five (5) pro-slavery colonists.  This event became known as the Pottawatomie Massacre.  Unlike most abolitionists, Brown supported violent action against slavery.  As time went on, more and more blood was shed in Kansas.  Some prominent anti-slavery activists and intellectuals in the northeast, such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, even praised John Brown.

In the "Crime against Kansas" speech, an abolitionist Senator from Massachusetts Charles Sumner described the slave oligarchy and insulted and humiliated the absent and elderly Senator Andrew Butler of South Carolina. In retaliation, Butler's nephew, Preston Butler, who was a congressman, went into Sumner's chambers and beat him senseless with a cane.  It took Sumner many years to recover. Preston Butler immediately resigned but became such a hero to the South that he was unanimously reelected by his district.

In the "Crime against Kansas" speech, an abolitionist Senator from Massachusetts Charles Sumner described the slave oligarchy and insulted and humiliated the absent and elderly Senator Andrew Butler of South Carolina. In retaliation, Butler's nephew, Preston Butler, who was a congressman, went into Sumner's chambers and beat him senseless with a cane.  It took Sumner many years to recover. Preston Butler immediately resigned but became such a hero to the South that he was unanimously reelected by his district.

This entire conflict in Kansas over slavery in the 1850s was called "Bleeding Kansas" because of the violence that occurred on both sides.

This entire conflict in Kansas over slavery in the 1850s was called "Bleeding Kansas" because of the violence that occurred on both sides.

The Lecompton Constitution was an effort to stop the violence in Kansas.  This pro-slavery document was designed as a response to the positions of the abolitionists.  The Lecompton Constitution never took effect as it was first rejected by Congress and then defeated by a referendum (vote) in the state of Kansas.

The never-ratified Lecompton Constitution of Kansas was an unsuccessful attempt to stop the violence in Kansas.  This pro-slavery document was designed as a response to the positions of the abolitionists.  The Lecompton Constitution never took effect as it was first rejected by Congress and then defeated by a referendum (vote) in the state of Kansas.

By the end of his Administration, Pierce could claim "a peaceful condition of things in Kansas." But the Democrats refused to renominate him for a campaign for a second term, turning to the less controversial James Buchanan. Pierce returned to New Hampshire, leaving his successor to face the rising fury of the sectional whirlwind. Pierce died in 1869.

By the end of his Administration, Pierce could claim "a peaceful condition of things in Kansas." But the Democrats refused to renominate him for a campaign for a second term, turning to the less controversial James Buchanan. Pierce returned to New Hampshire, leaving his successor to face the rising fury of the sectional whirlwind. Pierce died in 1869.