Operation Compass

Operation Compass was the first major World War II Allied military operation in the Western Desert Campaign. It resulted in British Commonwealth forces pushing across a great stretch of Libya and capturing over 100,000 Italian and Libyan soldiers with very few casualties of their own.

Prelude

After the Italian declaration of war on France and the United Kingdom on 10 June 1940, the Italian forces in Libya and the Commonwealth forces in Egypt began a series of cross-border raids. Among the more notable achievements of these raids were the capture of Fort Capuzzo by the British Army's 11th Hussars on 17 June. One early British raid on 12 June resulted in 63 Italians being taken prisoner. Benito Mussolini urged the Libyan Governor-General Marshal Italo Balbo to launch a large scale offensive against the British in Egypt. Mussolini's immediate aim was to capture the Suez Canal, ultimately wanting to link up his forces in Libya with those in Italian East Africa. But, for many reasons, Balbo was reluctant. After Balbo's accidental death on June 28, Mussolini was just as adamant in urging his replacement, General Rodolfo Graziani, to attack. Like Balbo, Graziani too was reluctant.

Graziani was the commander of the Italian Tenth Army in Libya, then an Italian colony, with the Fifth Army located towards the west in Tripolitania and the Tenth Army located towards the east in Cyrenaica. Once the French in Tunisia no longer posed a threat to Tripolitania, the assets of the Fifth Army were used more and more to supplement the needs of the Tenth Army.

Initially the British Middle East Command under General Archibald Wavell only had 30,000 troops stationed in Egypt to defend against the 150,000 Italian troops stationed in Libya. Airplanes available to both sides in the desert tended to be older biplanes. The Italians had Fiat CR.32s and Fiat CR.42s while the British had Gloster Gladiators. The British also several warships to bombard Tobruk and Bardia.

Graziani expressed doubts about the capabilities of his larger but largely un-mechanized force to defeat the British, who, though smaller in numbers, were largely mechanized. Graziani's one mobile group was the partially motorized and lightly armored "Maletti Group". This group was commanded by General Pietro Maletti. But even this group was short on transport vehicles. Maletti Group's tanks were mostly machine gun-armed Fiat L3s tankettes. His heaviest tank type was the Fiat M11/39. This tank featured a relatively weak hull-mounted 37 mm tank gun, and their numbers were small. In comparison, the British were able to field some faster Cruiser tanks (A9s, A10s, and A13s) which were more than match to the M11/39s. The British also had a limited number of heavy Matilda Infantry tanks that, while slow, were strongly armored and well armed. The armor of the Matilda tanks could not be pierced by any of the available Italian tank guns or anti-tank guns available at that time though Italian anti-aircraft guns could be used against them in the same manner as the German 88 mm.

The Italian invasion of Egypt

Even so, Graziani followed Mussolini's orders and the Tenth Army attacked on 13 September 1940. The Italian troops advanced over the Libyan/Egyptian border into Egypt. In addition to several infantry divisions and the Maletti Group, the seven attacking divisions included most of the available Libyan units. The Savari formed part of the Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali della Libia (Royal Corps of Libyan Colonial Troops), which included desert and camel troops, infantry battalions, artillery and irregular cavalry ("Spahis").

After recapturing Fort Capuzzo, progress was slow. The Italians advanced approximately 95 kilometers in three days. The advance stopped at the town of Sidi Barrani on September 16. The Italians then dug in, fortified their positions, and awaited reinforcements and supplies.

According to Virginio Gayda, Italian newspaper editor and mouthpiece for Mussolini's fascist regime: "Nothing can save Britain now."

However, the British Navy had transferred assets, including the aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious to the Mediterranean, making provisioning of North Africa problematic for the Italians.

British response

Following the Italian advance, Wavell ordered the commander British Troops Egypt, Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson to plan a limited operation to push the Italians back. Operation Compass was originally planned as a five day raid but was extended after its initial success. On December 8 1940 the Western Desert Force under the command of Major-General Richard O'Connor and comprising British 7th Armoured Division and Indian 4th Infantry Division reinforced by British 16th Infantry Brigade attacked. O'Connor's forces were able to get to the rear of the Italian positions via a gap in the defenses south of Sidi Barrani. A key role in the planning of the operation (and discovery of the gap) is often credited to Brigadier Eric Dorman-Smith.

As a counter-espionage measure, many of the troops involved in Operation Compass were not informed that the operation was not an exercise until they were very nearly engaged in combat. The attack was supported by 25 Pounder artillery, Blenheim bombers, and Matilda Mk.II tanks.

The opening stage of Operation Compass was known by the Italians as the "Battle of the Marmarica". The British knew it as the "Battle of the Camps". The "Battle of the Marmarica" name was derived from the name of the coastal plain where the battle was fought. The "Battle of the Camps" name was derived from the individual Italian camps set up in a defensive line outside of Sidi Barrani.

The Italian defenses were better suited to a colonial war. Within five hours of the onset of combat, the Italian positions were over run, General Pietro Maletti was dead, and about 4,000 Italian and Libyan soldiers were dead or captured. Over the next few days the British 4th and 7th Armoured Brigades encountered significant resistance and found it extremely difficult to advance. Due praise went to Italian anti-tank and artillery gunners who managed to destroy eighteen British tanks but eventually, 237 artillery pieces, 73 light and medium tanks, and about 38,300 Italian and Libyan soldiers would be destroyed or captured. The Rajputana Rifles had lost 41 officers and 394 men killed and wounded in the attacks and dozens of British tanks had been destroyed or disabled. The British and Indian forces having licked their wounds then moved quickly west along the Via della Vittoria, through Halfaya Pass, and again captured Fort Capuzzo in Libya.

O'Connor wanted to continue attacking. He wanted to get at least as far as Benghazi. However, on December 11 General Wavell had ordered the Indian 4th Infantry Division to take part in an offensive against Italian forces in Italian East Africa. O'Connor would state, "[This] came as a complete and very unpleasant surprise . . . It put 'paid' to the question of immediate exploitation . . . ". The Australian 6th Division replaced the Indian troops from December 14. The Australians had barely finished training, were missing their armoured regiment, and as yet had only one artillery regiment equipped with the new 25 pounder field guns.

US War Correspodent Edward Kennedy reported that the 4th Blackshirt Division fought well in defence of the Maktila positions:

"With the dawn the British column, made entirely of English and Scottish regiments—started for Sidi Barrani with tanks leading the way ... Two-thirds of a mile south of the town they came under the fire of Italians entrenched on a ridge ... After seven hours of hard fighting, in which the British said the Blackshirts fought well and inflicted considerable casualties, the British drove them back and took the ridge at 2 pm."

Battle of Bardia

The Italians put in a last-ditch regimental-sized counterattack in the southern sector, killing about 40. This was repulsed by 2/6th Battalion, which waited until their attackers were at close range before opening fire. Supported by tanks, the Australians closed in on the town of Bardia. At 1130 hours on 4 January, Major-General Iven Giffard Mackay, who commanded the 6th Infantry Division, accepted the surrender of the 25,000 Italian troops that had defended Bardia.

The Italian commander, Bergonzolli, escaped and was able to stay just ahead of the Commonwealth forces as they then advanced to Tobruk. Ultimately Bergonzoli became a prisoner in Benghazi after the remnants of the Italian Tenth Army was cut off and defeated at Beda Fomm.

Battle of Tobruk

Following the capture of Bardia, the 7th Armoured Division with an Australian brigade advanced to take Tobruk which had been enduring a siege since 9 January. The Italian defences at Tobruk comprised General della Mura's 61st Sirte Division, backed up by 45 tankettes, 20 medium tanks and 200 other guns. In overall command was General Petassi Manella, commander of the XX Corps. The attacking Allied infantry force comprised the 16th, 17th and 19th Brigades of the Australian 6th Division under Major-General Iven MacKay. The Free French Forces would also support the Australian attack. The RAF Blenheim bombers from Nos. 55 and 113 Squadron along with the Mediterranean Fleet in the form of HMS Ladybird, HMS Terror, HMS Aphis and HMAS Stuart and HMAS Vampire, would play an important role in softening up the Tobruk defences.

After nearly a fortnight of building-up strength around Tobruk, General O'Connor attacked on 21 January and Tobruk was captured on 22 January, yielding around 15,000 or 30,000 prisoners (depending on the source) along with 200 field and medium guns, 23 medium tanks and more than 200 other vehicles. Some fierce fighting took place and an Australian infantry company was nearly overrun in an Italian counter-attack and a French infantry attack initially beaten off.

The assault went in under the cover of darkness on the morning of 21 January. Once it appeared that the 2nd/3rd Battalion had penetrated the Italian forward defences, the leading companies of the 2nd/1st Battalion started their advance. However, one of the Australian companies soon ran into booby-traps that killed or wounded several in a platoon. Major Abbot's company was given the task of clearing several bunkered platoon, which it took after some fierce fighting, having initially been held up by the defenders manning Post 55. Sergeant Hoddinot had to crawl forward and use hand grenades to overcome the bunkered platoon that had wounded his platoon commander (Lieutenant MacDonald and a section commander (Corporal Foster) in his platoon. For his courage and leadership in the action, Hoddinot won the Distinguished Conduct Medal (D.C.M) and was later promoted to captain.

An Italian platoon also fought well in defence of Post 62, despite British tank and artillery fire. Lieutenant Clark had to pour a mixture of crude oil and kerosene through the firing slit in order to silence the bunkered defenders. Eleven Italians were killed and the remaining 35 surrendered. As Captain Campbell's company reached the end of the first phase of the advance it came under fire from dug-in light tanks. Captain Anderson and Lieutenant Russell were wounded and Lieutenant Russell killed. Despite encountering some stiff opposition, the 2nd/8th Battalion took 1,300 prisoners.

At around 14:00 hours, the Italians mounted a determined battalion-sized infantry-armour counterattack and Campbell's company had no option to withdraw, losing many killed, wounded or captured, before help arrived in the form of British anti-tank guns and tanks. At this point help arrived in the form of two British Matilda tanks.Meanwhile, other Australian rifle companies made good progress, using grenade, Bren, rifle and bayonet. They were met by a hail of fire on several occasions. Lieutenant Trevorrow and Sergeant Duncan were seriously wounded, and two of the platoon commanders had bullet holes in their clothing or equipment in the close-quarter fighting. At one point, Captain McDonald had to request the help of two British tanks to silence another stubborn platoon defending Post 42. After some fierce close-quarter combat the Italians gave up Post 41. As Captain Abbot's company also came under effective fire from the Italian platoons dug in in and around Posts 34 and 35, and was forced to withdraw.

During the night, the 19th Brigade commander attempted to negotiate a ceasefire with the commander of the Italian garrison in Tobruk. It was hoped they would succeed, but a cable from the Italian Supreme Command put paid to their efforts. Mussolini himself had himself personally signaled to General Petassi Manella, forbidding him to surrender and informing him that formations of Italian bombers were on their way as reinforcements. Later that night Italian SM.79s carried out a surprise low-level attack, but bombed some 8,000 prisoners who had been gathered inside a fenced enclosure, killing and wounding hundreds of their men. This bombing helped break the will of among those determined to fight it out in the town.

Next day, the capture of the remaining Italian strongpoints, from R1 to S11, was completed and assisted strongly by supporting tanks from the Support Group. The 2nd Rifle Brigade and 1st King's Royal Rifle Corps had also arrived as reinforcements that morning. Meanwhile, the 7th Armoured Division which had also entered the perimeter from the Derna road that morning stood by ready to advance into the Tobruk if required. That afternoon, General della Mura and the remaining defenders surrendered. The Italians had lost 15,000 killed-30,000 killed, wounded or captured. The Australian losses were 49 dead and 306 wounded.

Battle of Derna

In November and December 1940, the Italian Supreme Command moved quickly to organize and deploy in Albania and Libya the "Special Armored Brigade" (Brigata Corazzato Speciale, or BCS), consisting of fifty-five M13/40 tanks, artillery pieces and three Bersaglieri battalions specializing in the anti-tank role and equipped with anti-tank mines. In hardly more than a month, the Italians dispatched the bulk of this professional force under General Valentino Babini to North Africa. The M13s in the BCS were a vast improvement to the M11s. They had a better turret-mounted 47 mm tank gun which was more than able to pierce the armour of the British light and cruiser tanks. However, other than command vehicles, Italian tanks were not equipped with radios. Communicating for most Italian tankers required the use of signal flags.

Following the fall of Tobruk, O'Connor continued the advance towards Derna and Mechili, employing the Australian 6th Division and British 7th Armoured Division. On 24 January the 4th Armoured Brigade engaged the BCS deployed on the Derna-Mechili track in support of the Italian XX Corps under General Ferdinando Cona (HQ Giovanni Berta). While the British tankers managed to destroy nine Italian tanks in the confrontation, they unexpectedly lost seven tanks and are forced to initially retreat. The following day, the Australian 2nd/11th Battalion clashed with the 60th Sabratha Infantry Division and Bersaglieri from the BCS defending Derna airfield and a nearby height. Regia Aeronautica bombers and fighters flew sorties against the Australian battalion as it attacked the determined Italian defences.On 26 January, the Australians capture Derna along with 10,000 residents.

On 27 January, the Australian 2nd/4th Battalion managed to survive a strong regimental-size counterattack from the Sabratha Division near Wadi Derna, when reinforcements from the Northumberland Fusiliers arrived in time to help the Australians.

That same day, concealed soldiers of the BCS ambushed a column of armoured vehicles of the 6th Cavalry Regiment, taking the survivors prisoners. The advance of other units further to the south of the Wadi Derna eventually threatened the Sabratha and BCS with encirclement and General Cona orders the defenders to disingage on the night of 28 January. Precise casualty figures for the fighting for Derna and Giovanni Berta have not been compiled but at least 15 Australians soldiers were killed.

General Cona loses a substantial part of the 'Sabratha' and BCS but the Italian soldiers are reported to have fought very well in defence of Derna and Giovanni Berta:

“

Jan. 30.—The third major Italian bastion to fall in Libya—Derna, 175 miles west of the Egyptian frontier—was occupied today by British imperial troops after four days of the bitterest resistance offered by the Fascists in the whole of the African campaign. The town had been defended by less than 10,000 Italians, British sources disclosed, but they fought with a violence encountered nowhere else in General Sir Archibald P. Wavell's long continued thrust to the west."

”

On 4 February, Regia Aeronautica squadrons covering the Italian retreat shoot down a British Bleinheim and an Australian Hurricane from 73 Squadron (Pilot Officer Ken M. Millist), but lose a Caproni Ca.133 from 366a Squadriglia and a CR.42 from 368a Squadriglia that day.

Battle of Beda Fomm

The rapid advance of the British Commonwealth units, forced the Italian Supreme Command to issue orders for the 30,000-strong Benghazi stronghold to abandon the city and instead defend Tripoli. In late January 1941, the British Middle East Command in Cairo learned that the Italians were abandoning Cyrenaica along the main coastal road from Benghazi. The British 7th Armoured Division, under Major General Sir Michael O'Moore Creagh, was dispatched to intercept and defeat the remnants of Marshall Graziani'sItalian Tenth Army.

Creagh's division was ordered to cut through Msus and Antelat, while the Australian 6th Division pursued the Italians along the coastal road at the foot of the Jebel Akhdar mountains. The poor terrain was difficult going for the armoured columns, and Creagh took the bold decision to send a "flying column" (christened Combe Force) south-west across the virtually unmapped Libyan Desert. Combe Force, under Lieutenant Colonel John Combe of the 11th Hussars, consisted of 11th Hussars, a squadron of King's Dragoon Guards, 2nd Rifle Brigade, a Royal Air Force armoured car squadron, anti-tank guns from 3 Royal Horse Artillery (RHA) and 'C' battery 4 RHA. The force totalled about 2,000 men. In order to maintain speed, only light and Cruiser tanks were part of the Combe Force column.

On 5 February, Combe Force arrived at the Benghazi–Tripoli road and set up road blocks near Sidi Saleh, some 20 miles (32 km) north of Ajedabia and 30 miles (48 km) southwest of Antelat. The leading elements of the Italian Tenth Army arrived some 30 minutes later and were forced to come to a halt. On the evening, 4th Armoured Brigade had reached Beda Fomm, overlooking the coastal road some 10 miles (16 km) to the north of them, while 7th Armoured Support Group took a more northerly route to threaten the retreating Italian Tenth Army's flank and rear and prevent a breakout across the desert. Under the cover of darkness, the Italian force regrouped and counter-attacked. The fighting was intense and at times threatened to break through the British lines.

The fighting lasted 30 hours, and Combe Force managed to hold off about 15,000 or 25,000 (depending on the source) Italian soldiers supported by 120 medium tanks, 75 field guns and 50 anti-tank guns. In this engagement, the 10th Bersaglieri Regiment and Special Armoured Brigade nearly overrun the British infantry headquarters in two determined counterattacks.

After having failed to break through the British lines, and with the rest of the British 7th Armoured Division and 6th Australian Infantry Division arriving and deploying in support of Combe Force, the Italians have no option but to surrender.

Battle of Giarabub

General Wavell's offensive had cut off approximately 2,000 Italian and Libyan troops (under the command of Major Salvatore Castagna) defending the Giarabub stronghold guarding against the Free French Forces in Chad. Giarabub was an oasis 160 miles (260 km) to the south of Bardia and 25 miles (40 km) from the border. Although the Libyan troops deserted the defences, the Italian troops held firm and were still fighting off aerial and ground reconnaissance missions in mid-March. Although cut off, the garrison was supplied by air and the 6th Australian Division's divisional mechanized cavalry unit which was besieging the oasis did not have the necessary strength to overcome the opposition.

In late March, Wavell needed to capture the oasis in order to allow him to withdraw the divisional cavalry regiment to join the rest of the division tasked with the defence of northern Greece. The 2nd/9th Australian Infantry battalion reinforced the cavarly unit and an attack was launched under the command of Brigadier Wootten. On 21 March, the final fighting at Giararub took place and the fighting lasted two days with both sides taking heavy casualties, but the Australians prevailed although 2/9th Battalion lost 17 killed and 77 wounded before the Italians surrendered. It was estimated that 250 defenders had been killed or wounded in the patrol battles, softening up bombardments and final Australian platoon and company sized assaults at Giararub.

In late March Wavell needed capture the oasis to allow him to withdraw the divisional cavalry regiment to join the rest of the division to reinforce northern Greece. The cavalry unit was joined by 2/9th Australian Infantry battalion and an attack launched under the leadership of Brigadier Wootten. On 21 March, the final attack on Giararub took place and the fighting lasted two days with both sides taking heavy casualties, but the Australians prevailed although 2/9th Battalion lost 17 killed and 77 wounded. It was estimated that 250 defenders had been killed or wounded in the final assault and as a result of the artillery softening up fire and air bombardments.

Aftermath

After ten weeks of fighting, Graziani's 10th Army had been completely outfought and forced to relinquish most strongholds (Bardia, Tobruk, Derna, etc). The British Commonwealth and Free French forces had advanced 800 km, destroyed or captured about 400 tanks and 850 or 1,290 artillery pieces, and 100,000 or 130,000 (depending on the source) Italian and Libyan soldiers besides a vast quantity of other war material. Among the Italian captured were 22 generals. The Italian general staff and Graziani in his memoirs acknowledge 850 guns of all types lost and 100,000 captured, including 17,000 Libyan soldiers. The British and Commonwealth forces admit 494 dead and 1,225 wounded.

Contrary to expectations the British advance stopped short of capturing Tripoli and completely defeating the Italians in North Africa. As the British Commonwealth vanguards reached El Agheila, Churchill ordered that the offensive be stopped and infantry and armoured units dispatched urgently to defend northern Greece. The Greeks had most of their divisions pinned down in Albania containing Italian counteroffensives and a German invasion was soon expected to materialize through the undermanned Metaxas Line.

With the respite, the Italian Supreme Command is soon able to reinforce Italian strongholds in Libya. Among the Italian reinforcements were the 17th Pavia Infantry Division, the 25th Bologna Infantry Division and the 102nd Trento Motorised Division, making available about 150,000 Italian soldiers for the defence of Libya. The scene was set for protracted fighting. Also, on 10 January 1941, the British aircraft-carrier HMS Illustrious was disabled in a dive-bomber attack from German and Italian Stukas (with the former mainly equipped with smaller bombs) and haevy bombs from 96° Gruppo (under captain Ercolano Ercolani) hit the aft-lift, forcing the British carrier to limp back to Malta for repairs and allowing the German Afrika Korps to begin arriving in Tripoli (Operation Sonnenblume) unmolested.

On 25 March 1941, General Italo Gariboldi formally replaced Marshal Rodolfo Graziani. Graziani had earlier on requested to be relieved of hsi command. In the last week of April, the Italian divisional commanders reviewed the Axis forces assembled at Benghazi with a TIME magazine correspondant reporting that a German officer harrangued the assembled officers and otsher ranks: "At the beginning of Italian-German cooperation on African soil, we swear to make the greatest effort for a joint victory for Great Germany and Great Italy. Long live Great Italy! Long live Great Germany!" The assembled troops were reported to have answered: "We swear it!"

On 19 July, Gariboldi stepped aside, reportedly because he didn't get along with Rommel.

The British Commonwealth victories achieved during Operation Compass received much press coverage in Great Britain and the Allied countries and the victors became known as "Wavell's Thirty Thousand", which was used as the title of a 1942 British documentary chronicling the campaign. The Italians on their part made a movie called "Giararub" in 1942, that honoured the stand Major Castagna and his men had made during the British offensive.