Calc3.6
The Divergence
Definition
We've discussed partial derivatives, and we've even discussed a way to take a sort of "complete" derivative of multivariable functions (the gradient). But the gradient only works for scalar functions; how about a "complete" kind of derivative for vector fields?
In two dimensions, there is just one, but in three dimensions, there are, for reasons which won't appear until much later in your mathematical education. The first of these is called the divergence, which we investigate now.
Consider a vector field Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{F}=f_1\vec{i}+f_2\vec{j}+f_3\vec{k}} , which we interpret as representing the velocity of a fluid occupying space, or a very thin layer of flowing fluid on a plane. Suppose we wished to find out if there are any sources of fluid (like a faucet), or drains - how might we go about this?
Well, consider some specific point, Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle (x_0,y_0,z_0)=\vec{p}} . If we surround Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{p}} with a sphere, call it S, then obviously
Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \iint\limits_{S}\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\;\;\;\subset\!\supset \vec{F} dS }
will contain some contribution from whatever "flow" is coming out of, or going into, Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{p}} . It will, of course, also contains contributions from the various other points in its interior, but, if we let the radius r of the sphere S go to 0, then this integral will ONLY measure the flow at Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{p}} . Hence we define the divergence of a vector field Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{F}} as
Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \operatorname{div}\ \vec{F} = \lim_{r\to 0} \left( \frac{1}{\frac{4}{3}\pi r^3} \iint\limits_{S}\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\;\;\;\subset\!\supset \vec{F}\cdot\vec{n}_S dS \right)}
where Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{n}_S} is the outward pointing surface normal of unit length to S.
Two Dimensions
The obvious form of this for a two-dimensional vector field would be the limit of a line integral on a circle around a point, with one minor exception: usually, when we take the line integral of a vector field, we examine the dot product of the field with the curve tangent. However, in this case, we will examine the dot product of the field with the outward pointing curve normal, which for a circle, is Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle -\partial_s \vec{T}} where the derivative is taken with regard to arc length on the circle s.
Therefore, in two dimensions, we have:
Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \operatorname{div}\ \vec{F} = \lim_{r\to 0} \left( \frac{1}{\pi r^2} \oint_C \vec{F}\cdot\frac{-d\vec{T}}{ds} dA \right)}
Computation
- See the proof page for details.
This is an unwieldy definition, so we frequently use the equivalent statement
Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \operatorname{div} \vec{F} = \frac{\partial f_1}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial f_2}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial f_3}{\partial z}}
or in two dimensions, just Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \frac{\partial f_1}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial f_2}{\partial y}} . Note that if we were to define a "vector" Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \nabla = \vec{i}\partial_x +\vec{j}\partial_y + \vec{k}\partial_z } , we would have Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \operatorname{div}\ \vec{F} = \nabla \cdot \vec{F} } . Note that this isn't technically a vector, since the component are not number but differential operators, and the kind of "multiplication" we're doing isn't really multiplication, since you can't multiply an operator by a function; instead we're differentiating the components. Nevertheless, it's a handy notational convenience, and it actually does point to a deeper truth we won't begin to address in this course, so we'll continue to use Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \vec{F} } for the divergence.
The Curl
Since we've taken the dot product of our new differential operator Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \nabla} with a vector field, it only makes sense to see what happens when we take the cross product as well.
Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \nabla \times \vec{F} = \begin{vmatrix}\vec{i}&\vec{j}&\vec{k}\\ \partial_x & \partial_y & \partial_z \\f_1&f_2&f_3\end{vmatrix} = \left( \frac{\partial f_3}{\partial y} - \frac{\partial f_2}{\partial z} \right)\vec{i} - \left(\frac{\partial f_3}{\partial x} - \frac{\partial f_1}{\partial z} \right) \vec{j} + \left( \frac{\partial f_2}{\partial x} - \frac{\partial f_1}{\partial y} \right) \vec{k} }
Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle = \left( \frac{\partial f_3}{\partial y} - \frac{\partial f_2}{\partial z} \right)\vec{i} + \left( \frac{\partial f_1}{\partial z} - \frac{\partial f_3}{\partial x} \right) \vec{j} + \left( \frac{\partial f_2}{\partial x} - \frac{\partial f_1}{\partial y} \right) \vec{k}} .
Of course, this is useless if we don't know what it measures. Let's investigate:
The first component, Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \left( \partial_y f_3 - \partial_z f_2 \right)} , gives us the extent of the vector Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \nabla \times \vec{F}} in the x-axis direction. The expressions gives us, basically, how fast the fluid moving "up" along the z-axis "tips" in the direction of the y-axis, minus how much the fluid moving in the direction of the y axis tips in the direction of the z axis. This is just a measurement of how much the field is rotating about the x-axis (see illustration). By a similar logic, we see the other components will measure how much the field is rotating about the various other axes, and so when we add these all together, the result will be a vector which A) points along the line around which the field is rotating the most, and B) has magnitdue equal to how fast the fluid is rotating. For this reason, the expression Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \nabla \times \vec{F}} is often called the rotation or curl of Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{F}} , and you will sometimes see Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mathbf{rot}\vec{F}} or Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mathbf{curl}\vec{F}} used for Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \nabla \times \vec{F}} .
Applications of the Divergence and Curl
If we imagine a vector field as being a fluid which fills space, and moves around in it, so that the atom of water at point Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{p}} is travelling in the direction of Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{F}} with speed equal to Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{F}} s magnitude, then the divergence Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \vec{F}} simply tells us if it is compressing or decompressing. For this reason, a vector field such that <math( \nabla \cdot \vec{F})(\vec{p})=0 </math> for all points Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{p}} is called incompressible.
Alternatively, we may view a vector field as heat flowing through a solid body, like a metal bar. Places where the divergence is positive would then be places where heat is being created (by a fire, by contact with a hot body, by nuclear decay, etc.), and for those reasons, points Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{p}} where Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle (\nabla \cdot \vec{F})(\vec{p})>0} are called sources. Similarly, if the divergence is negative, that means heat is leaving, maybe because of refrigeration, contact with a cold body, or an endothermic reaction of some kind. For that reason, points Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{p}} where Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle (\nabla \cdot \vec{F})(\vec{p})<0} are called heat sinks or more commonly, simply sinks.
If we return now the the fluid understanding of a vector field, imagine putting a paddlewheel in a particular spot. The fluid might make the paddlewheel spin if we put in in along one axis, and might not if it goes in along another axis. The axis along which the wheel will spin fastest is the direction of Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \nabla \times \vec{F}} , and the magnitude of Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \nabla \times \vec{F}} tells us how fast the paddlewheel will spin.
So, if a vector field satisfies Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \nabla \times \vec{F}=\vec{0}} , it means it's not spinning around any axis, anywhere. It makes sense to call such a field irrotational.
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