Changes

The Constitution gives the following powers to Congress, each corresponding to a particular clause in Article I:

The Constitution gives the following powers to Congress, each corresponding to a particular clause in Article I:

Taxing Power: Congress can tax either to raise revenue or to regulate an activity.  Some taxes are designed to discourage sales, such as taxes on gasoline and cigarettes.  Neither Congress nor the states can tax exports.

'''Taxing Power''': Congress can tax either to raise revenue or to regulate an activity.  Some taxes are designed to discourage sales, such as taxes on gasoline and cigarettes.  Neither Congress nor the states can tax exports.

Spending Power: Congress can spend money on any public purpose.  Virtually any spending can be considered “for the common defense and general welfare.”  However, Congress may not regulate the general welfare independent of spending.

'''Spending Power''': Congress can spend money on any public purpose.  Virtually any spending can be considered “for the common defense and general welfare.”  However, Congress may not regulate the general welfare independent of spending.

Commerce Power: Congress has exclusive power to regulate all interstate and foreign commerce.  Congress may regulate any activity that has an effect on interstate commerce.

'''Commerce Power''': Congress has exclusive power to regulate all interstate and foreign commerce.  Congress may regulate any activity that has an effect on interstate commerce.

War Powers: Congress alone declares war and establishes and supports the military.  Congress may also make rules for military courts, over which federal courts have no general authority.  Congress can impose economic regulations (e.g., controls on wages and prices of goods) during wartime.

'''War Powers''': Congress alone declares war and establishes and supports the military.  Congress may also make rules for military courts, over which federal courts have no general authority.  Congress can impose economic regulations (e.g., controls on wages and prices of goods) during wartime.

Property Power: Congress has exclusive power over all federal lands and property, of which there is a great deal.  Congress also runs the District of Columbia, which is not in any state.

'''Property Power''': Congress has exclusive power over all federal lands and property, of which there is a great deal.  Congress also runs the District of Columbia, which is not in any state.

Intellectual Property Power: Congress sets the laws for patents and copyrights, which are called “intellectual property” because they are abstract products of intelligence rather than physical property.  (Although trademarks are considered intellectual property, Congress's authority to create trademark law actually arises from its commerce power.)

'''Intellectual Property Power''': Congress sets the laws for patents and copyrights, which are called “intellectual property” because they are abstract products of intelligence rather than physical property.  (Although trademarks are considered intellectual property, Congress's authority to create trademark law actually arises from its commerce power.)

Bankruptcy Power: Congress establishes uniform bankruptcy laws for the nation.

'''Bankruptcy Power''': Congress establishes uniform bankruptcy laws for the nation.

Postal Power: Congress establishes and runs the U.S. Post Office.  No competition is allowed unless Congress agrees to it (as it did for expensive overnight services like Federal Express)

'''Postal Power''': Congress establishes and runs the U.S. Post Office.  No competition is allowed unless Congress agrees to it (as it did for expensive overnight services like Federal Express)

Money Power: Congress coins money and also sets standards for weights and measures.

'''Money Power''': Congress coins money and also sets standards for weights and measures.

Citizenship Power: Congress can exclude aliens and determine the procedures for people to become citizens.

'''Citizenship Power''': Congress can exclude aliens and determine the procedures for people to become citizens.

Admiralty Power: Congress sets the laws for the seas.

'''Admiralty Power''': Congress sets the laws for the seas.

What’s left?  Congress can also expand its authority under these powers with the “Necessary and Proper Clause,” also known as the “Elastic Clause.”  Congress can make any law that is proper for executing any power granted to any part of government, not just Congress.  But there must be an underlying, specific grant of power in addition to the Necessary and Proper Clause.  For example, Congress could not pass laws establishing local police departments because there is no grant of power to the federal government in that area. But Congress could establish a special police department for the Post Office (called postal inspectors) because that is a part of its power to create a postal system and it is necessary and proper to have police enforce Post Office rules.

What’s left?  Congress can also expand its authority under these powers with the “Necessary and Proper Clause,” also known as the “Elastic Clause.”  Congress can make any law that is proper for executing any power granted to any part of government, not just Congress.  But there must be an underlying, specific grant of power in addition to the Necessary and Proper Clause.  For example, Congress could not pass laws establishing local police departments because there is no grant of power to the federal government in that area. But Congress could establish a special police department for the Post Office (called postal inspectors) because that is a part of its power to create a postal system and it is necessary and proper to have police enforce Post Office rules.

== How Laws are Made ==

== How Laws are Made ==