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{{Government Lectures}}

{{Government Lectures}}

'''Ninth Lecture - Political Parties, and a Look at Famous Trials'''

'''Political Parties, and a Look at Famous Trials'''

== Introduction ==

== Introduction ==

Remember that politics is a team sport, and the biggest teams are the political parties: Republicans and Democrats.  There are third parties too, such as the Constitution Party, the Libertarian Party, the Green Party, and others.  But they seem to be losing strength as time goes by.

Remember that politics is a team sport, and the biggest teams are the political parties: Republicans and Democrats.  There are third parties too, such as the Constitution Party, the Libertarian Party, the Green Party, and others.  But they seem to be losing strength as time goes by.

The Republican and Democratic Parties are controlled by a small group of people who meet in what was once called the "smoke-filled room," which in the old days was a few powerful people smoking cigars who made all the important political decisions within each political party.  Then the orders go out to everyone else in the party to obey, or else lose support from the party for reelection.  Today most people do not smoke, but the political parties still are controlled by very few people.

The Republican and Democratic Parties are controlled by a small group of people who meet in what was once called the "smoke-filled room," which in the old days consisted of a few powerful men smoking cigars as they made all the important political decisions within each political party.  Then the orders go out to everyone else in the party to obey, or else lose support from the party for reelection.  Today most people do not smoke, but the political parties still are controlled by very few people.

At the top of the party structure is its national committee.  For the Republicans, it is the Republican National Committee, which raises enormous sums of money and otherwise sets direction for the party.  Its Chairman, Reince Priebus, can be seen frequently on television news programs stating the views of the Republican Party.

At the top of the party structure is its national committee.  For the Republicans, it is the Republican National Committee, which raises enormous sums of money and otherwise sets direction for the party.  Its Chairman, Reince Priebus, can be seen frequently on television news programs stating the views of the Republican Party.

Judges, courts and trials are not what most people think about when they hear the term "government", but courts and public trials may be as important in deciding the future of our nation.  Elected politicians like to avoid the difficult issues, leaving it to courts to decide what really matters.

Judges, courts and trials are not what most people think about when they hear the term "government", but courts and public trials may be as important in deciding the future of our nation.  Elected politicians like to avoid the difficult issues, leaving it to courts to decide what really matters.

The most important trials in Anglo-American history have been by juries, and they have decided many of the fundamental issues that we take for granted. In trials, there are rules of evidence that limit what can be said or claimed.  Most of what politicians says, and much of what is taught in public school, would not be considered reliable enough to present in a court of law at a trial.  Demagoguery is not allowed; neither is most types of "hearsay", which is repeating what someone heard somewhere else.  The basic rules of evidence have developed over hundreds of years to promote a truthful result.   

The most important trials in Anglo-American history have been by juries, and they have decided many of the fundamental issues that we take for granted. In trials, there are rules of evidence that limit what can be said or claimed.  Most of what politicians says, and much of what is taught in public school, would not be considered reliable enough to present in a court of law at a trial.  Demagoguery is not allowed; neither are most types of "hearsay", which is repeating what someone heard somewhere else.  The basic rules of evidence have developed over hundreds of years to promote a truthful result.   

The Salem Witch Trials, which are not on this list (but perhaps they should be), reached results considered to be unjust because witnesses were allowed to say in court that they had a dream or vision ("spectral evidence") convincing them that the defendant was guilty.  Today that would be prohibited by rules of evidence.

The Salem Witch Trials, which are not on this list (but perhaps they should be), reached results considered to be unjust because witnesses were allowed to say in court that they had a dream or vision ("spectral evidence") convincing them that the defendant was guilty.  Today that would be prohibited by rules of evidence.

<br>10.  President Bill Clinton (1999)

<br>10.  President Bill Clinton (1999)

How many of those jury trials can you describe?  For the impeachment trials (3, 4, and 10), the "jury" was the entire U.S. Senate.

How many of these jury trials can you describe?  For the impeachment trials (3, 4, and 10), the "jury" was the entire U.S. Senate.

Both Thomas Jefferson and John Adams felt strongly that jury trials were the best defense against government.  Thomas Jefferson considered “trial by jury as the only anchor ever yet imagined by man, by which a government can be held to the principles of its constitution.”  John Adams said it was a jury’s “duty ... to find the verdict according to his own best understanding, judgment, and conscience, though in direct opposition to the direction of the court.”

Both Thomas Jefferson and John Adams felt strongly that jury trials were the best defense against government.  Thomas Jefferson considered “trial by jury as the only anchor ever yet imagined by man, by which a government can be held to the principles of its constitution.”  John Adams said it was a jury’s “duty ... to find the verdict according to his own best understanding, judgment, and conscience, though in direct opposition to the direction of the court.”

After witnessing the horrors of World War I, Bryan became convinced that the teaching of evolution was leading society to ruination through war.  “Survival of the fittest” provided an intellectual justification for the brutal killing of other nationalities and races.  Bryan foresaw the ethnic cleansing that grew to its horrible culmination in the Holocaust.

After witnessing the horrors of World War I, Bryan became convinced that the teaching of evolution was leading society to ruination through war.  “Survival of the fittest” provided an intellectual justification for the brutal killing of other nationalities and races.  Bryan foresaw the ethnic cleansing that grew to its horrible culmination in the Holocaust.

To avoid growth of the mistaken belief in “survival of the fittest” among humans, Bryan defended the Tennessee law and its application to Scopes, which imposed a $100 fine as the penalty for teaching that humans had evolved from apes.  Darrow agreed to take the witness stand to testify for teaching human evolution if Bryan also took the witness stand to allow Darrow to ask him questions.  Bryan testified first and performed well.  So well, in fact, that Darrow reneged on his promise and forced Scopes to plead guilty to end the case.  With that the trial ended, and Tennessee’s law remained in effect for another half century.  For nearly 100 more years Tennesee public schools taught little evolution, and George W. Bush won the presidential election in 2000 by carrying this home state of his opponent, Al Gore.

To avoid growth of the mistaken belief in “survival of the fittest” among humans, Bryan defended the Tennessee law and its application to Scopes, which imposed a $100 fine as the penalty for teaching that humans had evolved from apes.  Darrow agreed to take the witness stand to testify for teaching human evolution if Bryan also took the witness stand to allow Darrow to ask him questions.  Bryan testified first and performed well.  So well, in fact, that Darrow reneged on his promise and forced Scopes to plead guilty to end the case.  With that the trial ended, and Tennessee’s law remained in effect for another half century.  For nearly 100 more years Tennessee public schools taught little evolution, and George W. Bush won the presidential election in 2000 by carrying this home state of his opponent, Al Gore.

But the media wrote the history about this trial.  A famous liberal reporter at the trial, H.L. Mencken, published extremely one-sided articles that would make today’s media blush.  He excoriated Bryan at every possible turn, trying to make him look foolish.  When Hollywood got into the act with a movie called “Inherit the Wind,” it imitated Mencken’s bias.  Misinformed, many think Scopes and the evolutionists won the trial, but the real result was the opposite.

But the media wrote the history about this trial.  A famous liberal reporter at the trial, H.L. Mencken, published extremely one-sided articles that would make today’s media blush.  He excoriated Bryan at every possible turn, trying to make him look foolish.  When Hollywood got into the act with a movie called “Inherit the Wind,” it imitated Mencken’s bias.  Misinformed, many think Scopes and the evolutionists won the trial, but the real result was the opposite.

'''8.'''  '''Colonel William “Billy” Mitchell''' dropped out of college in 1898 to serve in the Spanish-American War.  Afterwards, America stayed out of wars until 1917, when Mitchell was touring Europe as an observer.  By then he was considered too old to be trained on the new airplanes that were just being considered, but he learned to fly through private lessons of his own.  When the United States entered World War I, Mitchell was the first American to fly over enemy lines.  In 1918, he led a large bombing attack on St. Mihiel on the western front in Europe.

'''8.'''  '''Colonel William “Billy” Mitchell''' dropped out of college in 1898 to serve in the Spanish-American War.  Afterwards, America stayed out of wars until 1917, when Mitchell was touring Europe as an observer.  By then he was considered too old to be trained on the new airplanes that were just being considered, but he learned to fly through private lessons of his own.  When the United States entered World War I, Mitchell was the first American to fly over enemy lines.  In 1918, he led a large bombing attack on St. Mihiel on the western front in Europe. An account of the battle is available online.<ref>http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/ww1/stmihiel/stmihiel.htm</ref>

After the war he devoted his efforts to advocating greater use of aviation in the military, and criticizing those who resisted the change.  In 1921 and 1923 Mitchell demonstrated how easily air power could sink ships by bombing old battleships  and sinking them.  The embarrassed military brass sent him on a trip to Asia, but when Mitchell returned he predicted that Japan would ultimately attack us as it did at Pearl Harbor.

After the war he devoted his efforts to advocating greater use of aviation in the military, and criticizing those who resisted the change.  In 1921 and 1923 Mitchell demonstrated how easily air power could sink ships by bombing old battleships  and sinking them.  The embarrassed military brass sent him on a trip to Asia, but when Mitchell returned he predicted that Japan would ultimately attack us as it did at Pearl Harbor.

As is typical, the government then brought the case for retrial.  Prosecutions do better the second time, learning from its mistakes.  The judge allowed a broader range of questioning.  Hiss's new defense counsel was weaker, conceding that the leaked documents were typed by the typewriter found in Hiss’ possession, but disputing that he typed them.  Inexplicably, Supreme Court Justice Frankfurter did not testify for Hiss in the second trial.

As is typical, the government then brought the case for retrial.  Prosecutions do better the second time, learning from its mistakes.  The judge allowed a broader range of questioning.  Hiss's new defense counsel was weaker, conceding that the leaked documents were typed by the typewriter found in Hiss’ possession, but disputing that he typed them.  Inexplicably, Supreme Court Justice Frankfurter did not testify for Hiss in the second trial.

The defense relied heavily on testimony by a expert witness who was a psychiatrist, who painted Chambers as a pathological liar.  But the prosecutor destroyed the witness in one of the most famous cross-examinations in American legal history.

The defense relied heavily on testimony by a expert witness who was a psychiatrist, who painted Chambers as a pathological liar.  But the prosecutor destroyed that expert witness in one of the most famous cross-examinations in American legal history. Excerpts from the trial transcript are available online.<ref>http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisstrialtranscripts.html</ref>

Hiss maintained his innocence until he died, despite the eventual release of secret Soviet files apparently identifying him as a spy.  Perhaps Hiss felt he could not go back on his prior statements, or perhaps he remained true to communism in protecting the movement.  The case helped define American politics for forty years, propelling Nixon to the Vice Presidency in 1952, Barry Goldwater to the Republican nomination for president in 1964, Nixon to the White House in 1968, and ultimately Ronald Reagan to the White House in 1980, where he awarded Chambers a posthumous Medal of Freedom.

Hiss maintained his innocence until he died, despite the eventual release of secret Soviet files apparently identifying him as a spy.  Perhaps Hiss felt he could not go back on his prior statements, or perhaps he remained true to communism in protecting the movement.  The case helped define American politics for forty years, propelling Nixon to the Vice Presidency in 1952, Barry Goldwater to the Republican nomination for president in 1964, Nixon to the White House in 1968, and ultimately Ronald Reagan to the White House in 1980, where he awarded Chambers a posthumous Medal of Freedom.

'''10.'''  '''President Bill Clinton''' was riding his in the polls and ready to pick his successor for the White House by late 1998.  His leadership enabled the Democratic Party to do surprisingly well in the mid-term elections, and President Clinton was seeking to leave a lasting legacy.

'''10.'''  '''President Bill Clinton''' was riding high in the polls and was ready to pick his successor for the White House by late 1998.  His personal popularity and a strong economy enabled the Democratic Party to do surprisingly well in the mid-term elections, and President Clinton was seeking to leave a lasting legacy.

Then the House of Representatives impeached him for making false statements under oath, which is perjury, and trial was scheduled for the Senate in 1999.  First Lady Hillary Clinton accused her opponents of being part of a “vast right-wing conspiracy” against her husband.  The Democratic Senators all lined up behind President Clinton, promising to vote for acquittal.

Then the House of Representatives impeached him for making false statements under oath, which is perjury, and trial was scheduled for the U.S. Senate in 1999.  First Lady Hillary Clinton accused her opponents of being part of a “vast right-wing conspiracy” against her husband.  The Democratic Senators all lined up behind President Clinton, promising to vote for acquittal.

Republicans enjoyed a majority in the Senate but lacked votes anywhere close to the requisite 2/3rd majority to convict.  President Clinton was a lame-duck at that point anyway, and the real battle was over his ability to influence politics beyond his term.

Republicans enjoyed a majority in the Senate but lacked votes anywhere close to the requisite 2/3rd majority to convict.  President Clinton was a lame-duck at that point anyway, and the real battle was over his ability to influence politics beyond his term.

The managers of the impeachment presented their case, but the Senate prevented them from calling key witnesses such as Clinton’s closest aids.  The procedural rules hamstrung the trial and served to protect the president.  Without the presentation of the full case, President Clinton easily survived the final vote.

The managers of the impeachment presented their case, but the Senate prevented them from calling key witnesses such as Clinton’s closest aids.  The procedural rules hamstrung the trial and served to protect the president.  Without the presentation of the full case, President Clinton easily survived the final vote.

But the victory was Pyrrhic.  The Democratic presidential nominee in 2000, Al Gore, felt he had to distance himself from Clinton and that probably made the difference on Election Day.  For 5 or so years, Clinton had little success in campaigning for candidates, failing (for example) in trying to help Governor Gray Davis in California prevail in his recall election.  Hillary Clinton, pollsters choice to run in 2004, apparently felt it was too soon to make an attempt.  The political ramifications of the impeachment trial lasted for a decade.

But the victory was Pyrrhic.  The Democratic presidential nominee in 2000, Al Gore, felt he had to distance himself from Clinton and that probably made the difference on Election Day.  For 5 or so years, Clinton had little success in campaigning for candidates, failing (for example) in trying to help Governor Gray Davis in California prevail in his recall election.  Hillary Clinton, pollsters choice to run in 2004, apparently felt it was too soon to make an attempt.  When she did run for her party's nomination in 2008, she was defeated.  The political ramifications of the impeachment trial lasted for at least a decade.

== Homework ==

== Homework ==

For the homework, we will have a ten or fifteen-question quiz '''''on only this lecture''''', which I will send by email in a day or two.

For the homework, we will have a ten or fifteen-question quiz '''''on only this lecture''''', which I will send by email in a day or two.

[[Category:American Government lectures]]

[[Category:American Government lectures]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:American Government Lecture 09}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:American Government Lecture 09}}