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== The Zenger Trial ==

== The Zenger Trial ==

Freedom began to cause problems in the colony of New York when the governor disliked criticism that appeared in a newspaper.  [[John Peter Zenger]] printed something embarrassing about the governor, and the governor decided to silence him by charging him with "seditious libel."  He demanded that Zenger be prosecuted and thrown in jail for criticizing him.   

Freedom in the colonies included freedom of speech, and criticism of politicians.  The governor of New York did not like being criticized by a newspaper (no one likes it), and the governor thought he could stop the criticism of him.  When this New York governor saw something embarrassing about him published in a newspaper by [[John Peter Zenger]], the governor tried to punish and silence him by charging him with a crime: "seditious libel."  The governor demanded that Zenger be prosecuted and thrown in jail for criticizing him.   

Zenger was then put on trial in 1735.  On the first day of the trial, Andrew Hamilton of Philadelphia, one of the best known attorneys in colonies, surprisingly showed up and agreed to defend Zenger for free.  Hamilton argued that it should not be a crime to print something that is true, even though it may embarrass the governor.  In other words, Zenger's attorney thought that someone should have a right to tell the truth, no matter how embarrassing it may be. It also established that truth is a perfect defense against a charge of libel.

Zenger was then put on trial in 1735.  On the first day of the trial, Andrew Hamilton of Philadelphia, one of the best-known attorneys in all of the colonies, surprisingly showed up and agreed to defend Zenger for free.  Hamilton argued that it should not be a crime to print something that is true, even though it may embarrass the governor.  In other words, Zenger's attorney thought that someone should have a right to tell the truth, no matter how embarrassing it may be. Zenger's attorney told the jury that truth should be a perfect and complete defense against allegations of libel.

The judge instructed the jury that, under the law, publishing the truth about someone can be a crime (the crime of "libel").  But the jury ignored this law and held in favor of Zenger:  "not guilty."  This case established a unique new American right:  the right of freedom of the press.  To this day we have that right in America, while those in England still do not.<ref>To this day, English courts welcome libel lawsuits far more than American courts do.  "Known as the 'libel capital of the world' because of its plaintiff-friendly rules on defamation, Britain has nothing remotely comparable to the First Amendment's protections for freedom of the press."[http://writ.news.findlaw.com/mariner/20030317.html]</ref>

But the judge instructed the jury that, under the law at that time, publishing the truth about someone can still be a crime (the crime of "libel").  The jury rejected what the judge said, and what the law said.  Instead, the jury held in favor of Zenger:  "not guilty."  This case established a unique new American right:  the right of freedom of the press.  To this day we have that right in America, while those in England still do not.<ref>To this day, English courts welcome libel lawsuits far more than American courts do.  "Known as the 'libel capital of the world' because of its plaintiff-friendly rules on defamation, Britain has nothing remotely comparable to the First Amendment's protections for freedom of the press."[http://writ.news.findlaw.com/mariner/20030317.html]</ref>

This important case also helped convince Americans of the importance of the right to a jury trial, which was later written into our Constitution.

This important case also helped convince Americans of the importance of the right to a jury trial, which was later written into our Constitution.

The trial established one additional right: the power of the jury to ignore the law and hold in favor of a defendant even though the law says he is guilty.  This is known as "jury nullification," and it also exists to this day.  Juries may "nullify" the law to find a defendant "not guilty," but defense attorneys are not allowed to inform a jury of this power during a specific trial.  Jurors can only decide to do it on their own, without suggestion by the defense attorney.

This trial established one additional right: the power of the jury to ignore the law and hold in favor of a defendant even though the law says he is guilty.  This is known as "jury nullification," and it exists to this day.  Juries may "nullify" the law to find a defendant "not guilty," but defense attorneys are not allowed to inform a jury of their power to nullify the law during a specific trial.  Jurors can only decide to do this on their own, without suggestion by the defense attorney.

'''Debate: Do you think a jury should be able to ignore the law in order to find a defendant "not guilty?"'''

'''Debate: Do you think a jury should be able to ignore the law in order to find a defendant "not guilty?"'''

In the 1700s, the English colonies grew in size, reaching 2 million in population compared to only 100,000 in the French settlements.   

In the 1700s, the English colonies grew in size, reaching 2 million in population compared to only 100,000 in the French settlements.   

But note that the citizens of the English colonies were not exclusively English.  Germans came here, African slaves came here involuntarily, and Scotch-Irish immigrated to the back country of the Middle Colonies and settled in Appalachia, where they remain a key voting bloc in support of the right to bear arms (own guns) today.  The Middle Colonies were New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware, and consisted of many diverse ethnic groups and religions; prejudice existed between the groups but they were peaceful towards each other.  William Penn even ''advertised'' for immigrants to come to Pennsylvania.   

But notice that the citizens of the English colonies were not exclusively English.  Germans came here, African slaves came here involuntarily, and Scotch-Irish immigrated to the back country of the Middle Colonies and settled in Appalachia, where they remain a key voting bloc today in support of the right to bear arms (own guns).  The Middle Colonies were New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware, and consisted of many diverse ethnic groups and religions; prejudice existed between the groups but they were peaceful towards each other.  William Penn even ''advertised'' for immigrants to come to Pennsylvania.   

In the 1730s and 1740s, a marvelous spiritual revival known as the "Great Awakening" swept the colonies.  A glorious [[Christian]] fervor spread throughout, helping to bring the colonies closer together in terms of beliefs, customs and practices.  Led by Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield, this was called "New Light" revivalism to distinguish it from the spiritualism of the 1600s.

In the 1730s and 1740s, a marvelous spiritual revival known as the "Great Awakening" swept the colonies.  A glorious [[Christian]] fervor spread throughout, helping to bring the colonies closer together in terms of beliefs, customs and practices.  Led by Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield, this was called "New Light" revivalism to distinguish it from the spiritualism of the 1600s.

Jonathan Edwards was brilliant man who graduated valedictorian at age 17 from [[Yale University]].  (Harvard was founded in 1636; the College of William & Mary in 1693; and Yale in 1701).  As Edwards grew older, he developed a sermon entitled "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God."  It was so powerful that it moved listeners to tearfully repent simply upon hearing it, and it remains the most prominently cited example of "fire-and-brimstone" preaching.

Jonathan Edwards was a brilliant man who graduated valedictorian at age 17 from [[Yale University]].  (Harvard was founded in 1636; the College of William & Mary in 1693; and Yale in 1701).  As Edwards grew older, he developed a sermon entitled "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God."  It was so powerful that it moved listeners to tearfully repent simply upon hearing it, and it remains the most prominently cited example of "fire-and-brimstone" preaching.

George Whitefield was an even better preacher, perhaps the finest preacher of all time in the English-speaking world.  Known as the "Great Itinerant," he drew enormous crowds for his sermons as he did seven tours through the colonies from 1740 to 1770.  He would simply arrive at a public place, like the Boston Commons, and many thousands would come to hear his sermon.  They didn't leave disappointed.

George Whitefield was an even better preacher, perhaps the finest preacher of all time in the English-speaking world.  Known as the "Great Itinerant," he drew enormous crowds for his sermons as he did seven tours through the colonies from 1740 to 1770.  He would simply arrive at a public place, like the Boston Commons, and many thousands would come to hear his sermon.  They didn't leave disappointed.

In 1755, the British sent General [[Edward Braddock]] to confront French, but they ambushed and beat him badly near [[Fort Duquesne]] (pronounced DOO CANE).  In 1756, war broke out between the French and English in Europe, Africa, and India, as the war morphed into the first true global conflict.  

In 1755, the British sent General [[Edward Braddock]] to confront French, but they ambushed and beat him badly near [[Fort Duquesne]] (pronounced DOO CANE).  In 1756, war broke out between the French and English in Europe, Africa, and India, as the war morphed into the first true global conflict.  

The British struggled badly at first in this war.  But eventually a smart fellow named [[William Pitt]] was appointed Prime Minister of England.  The city of Pittsburgh is named after him.  Pitt believed in appointing generals based on merit, not seniority or friendship.  Pitt recognized the importance of the colonies and began investing significant money and resources into the war.  He then started beating the French.  Under Pitt's leadership, the English captured Fort Duquesne (renaming it Fort Pitt) in 1758, Quebec in 1759, and then Montreal in 1760.  Taking advantage of their powerful navy, Britain gained control of the sea lanes and started winning in other places in world also, including India.   

The British struggled badly at first in this war.  But eventually a smart fellow named [[William Pitt]] was appointed Prime Minister of England.  The city of Pittsburgh is named after him.  Pitt believed in appointing generals based on merit, not seniority or friendship.  Pitt recognized the importance of the colonies and began investing significant money and resources into the war.  He then started beating the French.  Under Pitt's leadership, the English captured Fort Duquesne (renaming it Fort Pitt) in 1758, Quebec in 1759, and then Montreal in 1760.  Taking advantage of the powerful British navy, Britain gained control of the sea lanes and started winning in other places in world also, including India.   

In 1763, the war ended when Britain, France and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris. Under the terms of the treaty, the French lost all of their possessions in North America, yielding to England all of their territory east of the Mississippi, with the exception of two islands off the coast of Newfoundland. England returned Cuba and the Philippines to Spain, in exchange for Florida, while France surrendered the Louisiana territory to Spain.  Later, in 1803, Spain sold this land back to France, who quickly sold it to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase.

In 1763, the war ended when Britain, France and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris. Under the terms of the treaty, the French lost all of their possessions in North America, yielding to England all of their territory east of the Mississippi, with the exception of two islands off the coast of Newfoundland. England returned Cuba and the Philippines to Spain, in exchange for Florida, while France surrendered the Louisiana territory to Spain.  Later, in 1803, Spain sold this land back to France, who quickly sold it to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase.

In North America, the end of the French and Indian Wars left the British with a great deal of territory west of the Appalachians, but the Indians, who were not included nor consulted in the peace settlement, did not give up their land easily.  In 1763,  Native Americans, inspired by the anti-British message of a Lenni-Lenape (Delaware) prophet named Neolin, and led by the Ottawa chieftain Pontiac, destroyed every British post west of the Appalachians with the exceptions of Niagara, Pitt, and Detroit.

In North America, the end of the French and Indian War left the British with a great deal of territory west of the Appalachians, but the Indians, who were not included nor consulted in the peace settlement, did not give up their land easily.  In 1763,  Native Americans, inspired by the anti-British message of a Lenni-Lenape (Delaware) prophet named Neolin, and led by the Ottawa chieftain Pontiac, destroyed every British post west of the Appalachians with the exceptions of Niagara, Pitt, and Detroit.

== King George III, and Debts ==

== King George III, and Debts ==

Meanwhile there had been a big change in England.  [[King George III]] assumed the throne in 1760 (he ruled until 1820).  He had wanted to end the French and Indian War quickly.  William Pitt wanted England to escalate the war, and resigned in 1761, due partly to pressure by George III.  George III, after all, was the King and he demanded obedience from Pitt.

Meanwhile, there had been a big change in England.  [[King George III]] assumed the throne in 1760 (he ruled until 1820).  He had wanted to end the French and Indian War quickly.  William Pitt wanted England to escalate the war, and resigned in 1761, due partly to pressure by George III.  George III, after all, was the King and he demanded obedience from Pitt.

George III openly controlled Parliament, bribing men to do anything he wanted by placing them in positions of power.  This significantly altered the face of Parliament, and the majority became much less sympathetic to the colonies.  The ruling sentiment was that the colonies should be obliged to pay for their own expenses, rather than depending on the mother county (England).

George III openly controlled Parliament, bribing men to do anything he wanted by placing them in positions of power.  This significantly altered the face of Parliament, and the majority became much less sympathetic to the colonies.  The ruling sentiment was that the colonies should be obliged to pay for their own expenses, rather than depending on the mother county (England).

England felt that the colonists hadn't paid their fair share of the war expenses.  To keep from spending any more money, England was eager to make peace with the Indians and stop fighting.  England passed the Proclamation Act of 1763, forbidding colonists from settling west of Appalachians and forcing them to stop buying land from Indians.  The Proclamation Act ordered, "that no governor or Commander in chief of our other colonies of plantations in America, do presume for the present, and until our further pleasure be know, to grant warrant of survey, or pass patents for any lands beyond the heads of sources of any of the rivers which fall into the Atlantic Ocean from the west or north west ...."

England felt that the colonists hadn't paid their fair share of the war expenses.  To keep from spending any more money, England was eager to make peace with the Indians and stop fighting.  England passed the Proclamation Act of 1763, forbidding colonists from settling west of Appalachians and forcing them to stop buying land from Indians.  The Proclamation Act ordered, "that no governor or Commander in chief of our other colonies of plantations in America, do presume for the present, and until our further pleasure be know, to grant warrant of survey, or pass patents for any lands beyond the heads of sources of any of the rivers which fall into the Atlantic Ocean from the west or north west ...."

The logic behind the Proclamation Act was that as long as the colonists stayed in the colonies and had nothing to do with Indians, there should be peace.  Little did the British know that peace would not last for long in the colonies, and that when war did break out again, it would be against the British themselves.

The logic behind the Proclamation Act was that as long as the colonists stayed in the colonies and had nothing to do with Indians, there should be peace.  Little did the British know that peace would not last for long in the colonies, and that when war did break out again, it would be the American Revolution by the colonies against Britain and the King.

==Tension Grows==

==Tension Grows==

In 1770, the [[British Empire]] was the greatest in the world, and it continued to grow in power through the 1800s.  The idea that 13 different colonies with tiny armies and a divided population - a large percentage of which were pacifist Quakers - could defeat the mighty British was utterly absurd in 1770.  But this unlikely victory came true.  The story of this epic struggle for freedom is the story of the American Revolution.

In 1770, the [[British Empire]] was the greatest in the world, and it continued to grow in power through the 1800s.  The idea that 13 different colonies with tiny armies and a divided population - a large percentage of whom were pacifist Quakers - could defeat the mighty British was utterly absurd in 1770.  But this unlikely victory came true.  The story of this epic struggle for freedom is the story of the American Revolution.

Years before war broke out, tension was growing between England and her colonies.  King George III controlled parliament much more than preceding monarchs had, and his changes facilitated attempts to gain additional revenue from the colonies.  This was accomplished through higher taxes and restrictive trade laws which oppressed the colonies.  We've already discussed the institution of the Proclamation Act, and now we need to discuss its consequences.

Years before war broke out, tension was growing between England and her colonies.  King George III controlled parliament much more than preceding monarchs had, and his changes resulted in attempts to gain additional revenue from the colonies.  This was accomplished through higher taxes and restrictive trade laws which oppressed the colonies.

The Proclamation Act imposed an enormous burden on the colonies.  When it passed in 1763, 90% of the colonial economy depended on farming.  Farmers needed land to grow valuable crops of tobacco, corn, rice, indigo, and wheat, but the Proclamation Act confined them to the land they already had in the colonies.  The other 10% of the colonial economy involved fishing and whaling in New England and timber, but the overwhelming majority of colonists were farmers, and the Proclamation Act was detrimental to their growth.

The Proclamation Act imposed an enormous burden on the colonies.  When it passed in 1763, 90% of the colonial economy depended on farming.  Farmers needed land to grow valuable crops of tobacco, corn, rice, indigo, and wheat, but the Proclamation Act confined them to the land they already had in the colonies.  The other 10% of the colonial economy involved fishing and whaling in New England and timber, but the overwhelming majority of colonists were farmers, and the Proclamation Act was detrimental to their growth.