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Before dawn on 7 December 1941, the American strategic center of gravity in the Pacific reposed in the seven battleships then moored along "Battleship Row", the six pairs of interrupted quays located along Ford Island's eastern side. Quay F-2, the southernmost, which usually hosted an aircraft carrier, was empty. Northeastward, Battle Force flagship ''California'' was next, moored at F-3. Then came two pairs, moored side by side: ''Maryland'' with ''Oklahoma'' outboard, and ''Tennessee'' with ''West Virginia'' outboard. [[Astern]] of ''Tennessee'' lay ''Arizona'', which had the repair ship ''Vestal'' alongside. Last in line was ''Nevada'', by herself at quay F-8. These seven battleships, ranging in age from eighteen to twenty-five years, represented all but two of those available to the Pacific Fleet. The Fleet flagship, ''Pennsylvania'', was also in Pearl Harbor, drydocked at the nearby Navy Yard. The ninth, ''Colorado'', was undergoing overhaul on the west coast.

Before dawn on 7 December 1941, the American strategic center of gravity in the Pacific reposed in the seven battleships then moored along "Battleship Row", the six pairs of interrupted quays located along Ford Island's eastern side. Quay F-2, the southernmost, which usually hosted an aircraft carrier, was empty. Northeastward, Battle Force flagship ''California'' was next, moored at F-3. Then came two pairs, moored side by side: ''Maryland'' with ''Oklahoma'' outboard, and ''Tennessee'' with ''West Virginia'' outboard. [[Astern]] of ''Tennessee'' lay ''Arizona'', which had the repair ship ''Vestal'' alongside. Last in line was ''Nevada'', by herself at quay F-8. These seven battleships, ranging in age from eighteen to twenty-five years, represented all but two of those available to the Pacific Fleet. The Fleet flagship, ''Pennsylvania'', was also in Pearl Harbor, drydocked at the nearby Navy Yard. The ninth, ''Colorado'', was undergoing overhaul on the west coast.

Together, these ships were one short of equaling Japan's active battlefleet. Clearly a worrisome threat to Japanese plans for Pacific Ocean dominance, they were the Japanese raiders' priority target. Twenty-four of the forty Japanese torpedo planes were assigned to attack "Battleship Row", and five more diverted to that side of Ford Island when they found no battleships in their intended target areas. Of these planes' twenty-nine Type 91 aerial torpedoes (each with a warhead of some 450 pounds of high explosive), up to twenty-one found their targets: two hit ''California'', one exploded against ''Nevada'' and as many as nine each struck ''Oklahoma'' and ''West Virginia''. The latter two ships sank within minutes of receiving this torpedo damage.

Together, these ships were one short of equaling Japan's active battlefleet. Clearly a worrisome threat to Japanese plans for Pacific Ocean dominance, they were the Japanese raiders' priority target. Twenty-four of the forty Japanese torpedo planes were assigned to attack "Battleship Row", and five more diverted to that side of Ford Island when they found no battleships in their intended target areas. Of these planes' twenty-nine Type 91 aerial torpedoes (each with a warhead of some 450 pounds of high explosive), up to twenty-one found their targets: two hit ''California'', one exploded against ''Nevada'' and as many as nine each struck ''Oklahoma'' and ''West Virginia''. The latter two ships sank within minutes of receiving this torpedo damage. The excessive concentration on ''Oklahoma'' and '"West Virginia'' was a byproduct of the overly-complex torpedo plane attack plan (which had multiple flight paths criss-crossing south of Battleship Row), a breakdown in Japanese command and control during the final run-in, and the higher difficulty of flying a torpedo attack profile against the northern end of Battleship Row.

Horizontal bombers, armed with heavy armor-piercing bombs, arrived just as the last torpedo planes finished their attacks, and other horizontal and dive bombers came in later. Together, these planes scored many hits or damaging near-misses on the "Battleship Row" ships: two on ''California'', ''Maryland'' and ''Tennessee''; a few on ''West Virginia''. Most spectacular of the bombers' victims was ''Arizona'', which was struck many times. One bomb penetrated to the vicinity of her forward magazines, which detonated with a massive blast, immediately sinking the ship.  

Horizontal bombers, armed with heavy armor-piercing bombs, arrived just as the last torpedo planes finished their attacks, and other horizontal and dive bombers came in later. Together, these planes scored many hits or damaging near-misses on the "Battleship Row" ships: two on ''California'', ''Maryland'' and ''Tennessee''; a few on ''West Virginia''. Most spectacular of the bombers' victims was ''Arizona'', which was struck many times. One bomb penetrated to the vicinity of her forward magazines, which detonated with a massive blast, immediately sinking the ship.  

The thirty-year-old ''Utah'', which had been converted from an obsolete battleship ten years earlier, received two torpedoes, completely overwhelming her very limited ability to absorb underwater damage. She capsized to port in about ten minutes, coming to rest with her bottom in the air. As ''Utah's'' crew were abandoning ship and swimming through the oily water to Ford Island, they were the target of machine-gun attacks by Japanese planes. Although ten trapped Sailors were later cut free from her upturned hull, about sixty were lost with their ship. ''Utah'' was partially turned upright in 1943-44 but was not further salvaged.

The thirty-year-old ''Utah'', which had been converted from an obsolete battleship ten years earlier, received two torpedoes, completely overwhelming her very limited ability to absorb underwater damage. She capsized to port in about ten minutes, coming to rest with her bottom in the air. As ''Utah's'' crew were abandoning ship and swimming through the oily water to Ford Island, they were the target of machine-gun attacks by Japanese planes. Although ten trapped Sailors were later cut free from her upturned hull, about sixty were lost with their ship. ''Utah'' was partially turned upright in 1943-44 but was not further salvaged.

USS ''Raleigh'' was hit by one torpedo and a bomb. Of an old and not very sturdy design, she barely avoided capsizing, but her crew, assisted by a salvage barge and a tug, kept her upright and afloat. Major repairs returned ''Raleigh'' to the active fleet in a a little over a half-year.

USS ''Raleigh'' was hit by one torpedo and a bomb. An elderly ''Omaha''-class cruiser, she barely avoided capsizing, but her crew, assisted by a salvage barge and a tug, kept her upright and afloat. Major repairs returned ''Raleigh'' to the active fleet in a a little over a half-year.

Also damaged west of Ford Island was the seaplane tender ''Curtiss'', hit by a crashing enemy dive bomber, plus one bomb and fragments of another during the second wave attack. ''Curtiss'' was also unsuccessfully attacked by a Japanese midget submarine, which fired a torpedo at the seaplane tender and was then promptly sunk by the destroyer ''Monaghan''.

Also damaged west of Ford Island was the seaplane tender ''Curtiss'', hit by a crashing enemy dive bomber, plus one bomb and fragments of another during the second wave attack. ''Curtiss'' was also unsuccessfully attacked by a Japanese midget submarine, which fired a torpedo at the seaplane tender and was then promptly sunk by the destroyer ''Monaghan''.

Japanese losses were comparatively light. Twenty-nine planes, less than 10 percent of the attacking force, failed to return to their carriers.

Japanese losses were comparatively light. Twenty-nine planes, less than 10 percent of the attacking force, failed to return to their carriers.

The Japanese success was overwhelming, but it was not a strategic victory. They failed to damage any American aircraft carriers, which by a stroke of luck, had been absent from the harbor. They neglected to damage the shoreside facilities at the Pearl Harbor Naval Base, which played an important role in the Allied victory in [[World War II]]. American technological skill raised and repaired all but three of the ships sunk or damaged at Pearl Harbor (''Arizona'', ''Oklahoma'' and ''Utah''). Most importantly, the shock and anger caused by the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor united a divided nation and was translated into a wholehearted commitment to victory in World War II.

The Japanese success was overwhelming, but it was not a strategic victory. They failed to damage any American aircraft carriers, which by a stroke of luck, had been absent from the harbor. They were unable to damage the shoreside facilities at the Pearl Harbor Naval Base, which played an important role in the Allied victory in [[World War II]] (it would have been impossible to do strategically significant damage to industrial facilities at Pearl Harbor with carrier-based aircraft). American technological skill raised and repaired all but three of the ships sunk or damaged at Pearl Harbor (''Arizona'', ''Oklahoma'' and ''Utah''). Most importantly, the shock and anger caused by the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor united a divided nation and was translated into a wholehearted commitment to victory in World War II.

==see also==

==see also==

* Goldstein, Donald M., and Katherine V. Dillon. ''The Pearl Harbor Papers: Inside the Japanese Plans'' (1999) [http://www.amazon.com/Pearl-Harbor-Papers-Inside-Japanese/dp/1574882228/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1236891574&sr=1-15 excerpt and text search]

* Goldstein, Donald M., and Katherine V. Dillon. ''The Pearl Harbor Papers: Inside the Japanese Plans'' (1999) [http://www.amazon.com/Pearl-Harbor-Papers-Inside-Japanese/dp/1574882228/ref=sr_1_15?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1236891574&sr=1-15 excerpt and text search]

* Prange, Gordon W. ''At Dawn We Slept''. (1982) , the standard history of the Pearl Harbor attack [http://www.amazon.com/At-Dawn-Slept-Gordon-Prange/dp/0140157344/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1214102682&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

* Prange, Gordon W. ''At Dawn We Slept''. (1982) , the standard history of the Pearl Harbor attack [http://www.amazon.com/At-Dawn-Slept-Gordon-Prange/dp/0140157344/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1214102682&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

* Wohlstetter, Roberta. ''Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision'' (1962), explains why the U.S. was surprised [http://www.amazon.com/Pearl-Harbor-Decision-Roberta-Wohlstetter/dp/0804705984/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1236891574&sr=1-13 excerpt and text search]

* Wohlstetter, Roberta. ''Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision'' (1962), explains why the U.S. was surprised [http://www.amazon.com/Pearl-Harbor-Decision-Roberta-Wohlstetter/dp/0804705984/ref=sr_1_13?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1236891574&sr=1-13 excerpt and text search]

* Zimm, Alan. ''Attack on Pearl Harbor: Strategy, Combat, Myths, Deceptions'' (2011), analyzes the attack using US Navy operations research methods; disagrees with the "standard" view that the attack was well-planned and executed [http://www.amazon.com/Attack-Pearl-Harbor-Deceptions-ebook/dp/B004VRW1Z0/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1380570373&sr=8-1]

===Primary sources===

===Primary sources===

* Allen, Thomas B. ''Remember Pearl Harbor: American and Japanese Survivors Tell Their Stories'' (2007)

* Allen, Thomas B. ''Remember Pearl Harbor: American and Japanese Survivors Tell Their Stories'' (2007)