Changes

Mexico began to give American citizens free land if they became Mexican citizens and encouraged their friends to do the same.  Thousands of settlers left the United States to become Mexican citizens.

Mexico began to give American citizens free land if they became Mexican citizens and encouraged their friends to do the same.  Thousands of settlers left the United States to become Mexican citizens.

But in 1836, settlers what is now Texas revolted against Mexico.  They declared that Texas was independent from Mexico, and drafted their own constitution.   

But in 1836, settlers in what is now Texas revolted against Mexico.  They declared that Texas was independent from Mexico, and drafted their own constitution.   

In the famous Battle of the Alamo, a few thousand soldiers from Mexico defeated just 165 or so Texans at the Alamo (including Davey Crockett, a famous former congressman from Tennessee), and massacred all of them.  This battle became famous, as did the cry "Remember the Alamo!"

In the famous Battle of the Alamo, a few thousand soldiers from Mexico defeated just 165 or so Texans at the Alamo (including Davey Crockett, a famous former congressman from Tennessee), and massacred all of them.  This battle became famous, as did the cry "Remember the Alamo!"

Along with the expansion and migration came great social change in the older portions of the United States.  Utopian communities thrived in the 1840s to pursue idealistic societies, often based on common religious beliefs and sharing homes and property.  The homeschooling movement today could be compared with the movements in the 1840s, though homeschooling is more of a concept than a centralized community having shared property.  Examples of Utopian communities in the 1840s (and earlier) were the Shakers, Brook Farm, the Rappites, and the Oneida Community:<ref name="Utopian">http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/amana/utopia.htm</ref>

Along with the expansion and migration came great social change in the older portions of the United States.  Utopian communities thrived in the 1840s to pursue idealistic societies, often based on common religious beliefs and sharing homes and property.  The homeschooling movement today could be compared with the movements in the 1840s, though homeschooling is more of a concept than a centralized community having shared property.  Examples of Utopian communities in the 1840s (and earlier) were the Shakers, Brook Farm, the Rappites, and the Oneida Community:<ref name="Utopian">http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/amana/utopia.htm</ref>

* The Shakers, whose formal name was the United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Coming, believed in communal living (people sharing each other's homes and property), productive labor, pacifism, simplicity, and ritualistic dancing and shaking during services.  It was founded by an Englishwoman in 1758, split off from the Quakers in 1772, and grew to 6,000 members in America before the Civil War.  The Shakers rejected slavery and other aspects of American life, and had thriving communities in Enfield, Connecticut and in Berkshire County, Massachusetts.  Other Shaker communities existed in Kentucky, New Hampshire, New York (New Lebanon) ... and Maine (New Glochester), where there are Shakers to this day!

* The Shakers, whose formal name was the United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Coming, believed in communal living (people sharing each other's homes and property), productive labor, pacifism, simplicity, and ritualistic dancing and shaking during services.  It was founded by an Englishwoman in 1758, split off from the Quakers in 1772, and grew to 6,000 members in America before the Civil War.  The Shakers rejected slavery and other aspects of American life, and had thriving communities in Enfield, Connecticut and in Berkshire County, Massachusetts.  Other Shaker communities existed in Kentucky, New Hampshire, New York (New Lebanon) ... and Maine (near the towns of New Gloucester and Poland), where there are still a few Shakers to this day!

* Brook Farm was a Utopian community based on "transcendentalism" - a philosophy started by Immanuel Kant in the late 1700s that emphasized man's ability to "transcend" experience and pursue a lifestyle of simple living, self-reliance, and rejection of industrialization.  This movement took inspiration from Ralph Waldo Emerson, who was the leading American proponent of this philosophy (without himself living in a Utopian community), and his friend Henry David Thoreau, who did spend some time living in simplicity on "Walden's Pond." (Occasionally he would sneak over to his friend Emerson's house to enjoy a good meal and better surroundings!) Thoreau also became famous for his book advocating "civil disobedience" to laws and authority.  Brook Farm itself was located in Suffolk County, Massachusetts and was led by a former Unitarian minister.  The community provided to all members, their children and family dependents the following: housing, fuel, wages, clothing and food.  It also had schools at all levels before college.  This project ended in failure due to financial difficulties and even a bitter lawsuit by investors attempting to recover their money.  This community never exceeded 120 persons, making it smaller than most homeschooling communities today.

* Brook Farm was a Utopian community based on "transcendentalism" - a philosophy started by Immanuel Kant in the late 1700s that emphasized man's ability to "transcend" experience and pursue a lifestyle of simple living, self-reliance, and rejection of industrialization.  This movement took inspiration from Ralph Waldo Emerson, who was the leading American proponent of this philosophy (without himself living in a Utopian community), and his friend Henry David Thoreau, who did spend some time living in simplicity on "Walden's Pond." (Occasionally he would sneak over to his friend Emerson's house to enjoy a good meal and better surroundings!) Thoreau also became famous for his book advocating "civil disobedience" to laws and authority.  Brook Farm itself was located in Suffolk County, Massachusetts and was led by a former Unitarian minister.  The community provided to all members, their children and family dependents the following: housing, fuel, wages, clothing and food.  It also had schools at all levels before college.  This project ended in failure due to financial difficulties and even a bitter lawsuit by investors attempting to recover their money.  This community never exceeded 120 persons, making it smaller than most homeschooling communities today.

* The Rappites, also known as The Harmony Society, were founded by Johann Georg Rapp and first consisted of immigrants from Germany seeking religious freedom in America.  They settled in Butler County, Pennsylvania, called Harmony, and believed that the Bible was humanity's sole authority.  Similar to the Shakers, the Rappites required led a communal life without individual possessions.  Frederick Rapp, George Rapp's adopted son, transformed the economy of Harmony from subsistence agriculture to gradual diversified manufacturing, and by 1814 the Society was thriving with 700 members and a town of 130 homes and factories.  The products they produced, ranging from textiles to woolens to wine and whiskey, were highly valued by other Americans for their quality.  The Rappites continued to succeed economically, and repeatedly outgrew their towns, moving to Indiana (after selling their first town for $100,000 to Mennonites) and later back to Pennsylvania.  They peaked in 1866 and, after several schisms, disbanded in 1905.  Their sturdy buildings remain to this day.

* The Rappites, also known as The Harmony Society, were founded by Johann Georg Rapp and first consisted of immigrants from Germany seeking religious freedom in America.  They settled in Butler County, Pennsylvania, called Harmony, and believed that the Bible was humanity's sole authority.  Similar to the Shakers, the Rappites required led a communal life without individual possessions.  Frederick Rapp, George Rapp's adopted son, transformed the economy of Harmony from subsistence agriculture to gradual diversified manufacturing, and by 1814 the Society was thriving with 700 members and a town of 130 homes and factories.  The products they produced, ranging from textiles to woolens to wine and whiskey, were highly valued by other Americans for their quality.  The Rappites continued to succeed economically, and repeatedly outgrew their towns, moving to Indiana (after selling their first town for $100,000 to Mennonites) and later back to Pennsylvania.  They peaked in 1866 and, after several schisms, disbanded in 1905.  Their sturdy buildings remain to this day.

* The Oneida Community in Madison County, New York, was an abolitionist movement founded by the minister John Humphreys Noyes.  He preached the radical view that perfection was attainable in this life, and his followers became known as "Perfectionists".  Unfortunately, he also preached a concept of "complex marriage," whereby men and women married in groups such that every man in the group was married to every woman in the group, and children were raised by everyone.  "Bible communism" resulted in no individual property.  A 1879 meeting of ministers in Syracuse, New York, condemned the settlement, and unrest caused Noyes to flee to Canada.

* The Oneida Community in Madison County, New York, was an abolitionist movement founded by the minister John Humphreys Noyes.  He preached the radical view that perfection was attainable in this life, and his followers became known as "Perfectionists".  Unfortunately, he also preached a concept of "complex marriage," whereby men and women married in groups such that every man in the group was married to every woman in the group, and children were raised by everyone.  "Bible communism" resulted in no individual property.  A 1879 meeting of ministers in Syracuse, New York, condemned the settlement, and the turmoil caused Noyes to flee to Canada.

The decline of all the Utopian communities has been attributed to increased industrialization and hostility by a broader public to the concept.  Inflammatory newspaper articles played a role as the public became reliant on secular sources for information.  But historians have concluded that "religious utopian colonies possessed a longer life then their secular counterparts."<ref name="Utopian"/>  Most of the Utopian communities have remnants that are preserved today and can be visited.

The decline of all the Utopian communities has been attributed to increased industrialization and hostility by a broader public to the concept.  Inflammatory newspaper articles played a role as the public became reliant on secular sources for information.  But historians have concluded that "religious utopian colonies possessed a longer life then their secular counterparts."<ref name="Utopian"/>  Most of the Utopian communities have remnants that are preserved today and can be visited.

In addition to the Utopian communities, there were key social and religious movements in or around the 1840s that resulted from the culmination of the Second Great Awakening, which swept America from 1790 to 1840:

In addition to the Utopian communities, there were key social and religious movements in or around the 1840s that resulted from the culmination of the Second Great Awakening, which swept America from 1790 to 1840:

* the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (the Mormon Church), the only major church founded in America, was established in 1830 by Joseph Smith in western New York.  He then moved to Ohio, and then Nauvoo, Illinois, where it thrived so much that it became the largest town in Illinois in 1844 (even bigger than Chicago).  The movement banned alcohol and emphasized hard work and entrepreneurship.  But in 1844 an anti-Mormon newspaper (the "Nauvoo Expositor") began harshly criticizing the church, and city council responded by shutting down the newspaper, which in turn led to a backlash causing the imprisonment of Mayor Joseph Smith.  While in jail, Joseph Smith (and his brother) was killed by a mob that was unlawfully allowed to enter the prison.  Brigham Young became the next leader of this church within a few years, and led the 70,000-person Mormon community on a 1,300-mile migration to establish a new state in the west, then part of Mexico but now Utah.  Today the Mormon Church is the fourth largest church denomination in the United States, after the Catholics, Baptists and Methodists.<ref>http://www.ncccusa.org/news/080215yearbook1.html</ref>  One of its spectacular temples is located just north of D.C., close to the "Beltway" (highway 495 that loops around D.C.).

* the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (the Mormon Church), the only major church founded in America, was established in 1830 by Joseph Smith in western New York.  He then moved to Ohio, and then Nauvoo, Illinois, where it thrived so much that it became the largest town in Illinois in 1844 (even bigger than Chicago).  The movement banned alcohol and emphasized hard work and entrepreneurship.  But in 1844 an anti-Mormon newspaper (the "Nauvoo Expositor") began harshly criticizing the church, and city council responded by shutting down the newspaper, which in turn led to a backlash causing the imprisonment of Mayor Joseph Smith.  While in jail, Joseph Smith (and his brother) was killed by a mob that was unlawfully allowed to enter the prison.  Brigham Young became the next leader of this church within a few years, and led the 70,000-person Mormon community on a 1,300-mile migration to establish a new state in the west, then part of Mexico but now Utah.  Today the Mormon Church is the fourth largest church denomination in the United States, after Catholics, Baptists and Methodists.<ref>http://www.ncccusa.org/news/080215yearbook1.html</ref>  One of its spectacular temples is located just north of D.C., close to the "Beltway" (highway 495 that loops around D.C.).

* The Seventh Day Adventist Church began 1844, when a prediction of the end of the world based on a biblical interpretation did not happen (the so-called "Great Disappointment").  This new Christian religion emphasizes observance of the Sabbath on Saturday (hence its name), adherence to the Bible, and preparation for the second coming of Christ.  The Seventh Day Adventists also developed an approach to good health that included building hospitals, such as the large hospital located in Hackettstown, New Jersey.

* The Seventh Day Adventist Church began 1844, when a prediction of the end of the world based on a biblical interpretation did not happen (the so-called "Great Disappointment").  This new Christian religion emphasizes observance of the Sabbath on Saturday (hence its name), adherence to the Bible, and preparation for the second coming of Christ.  The Seventh Day Adventists also developed an approach to good health that included building hospitals, such as the large hospital located in Hackettstown, New Jersey.

* In 1840, the first anti-slavery party (called the "Liberty Party") formed.  It lasted until 1848, when it merged with opponents of slavery in the Whig and Democratic Parties in order to form another anti-slavery party, the stronger Free-Soil party.

* In 1840, the first anti-slavery party (called the "Liberty Party") formed.  It lasted until 1848, when it merged with opponents of slavery in the Whig and Democratic Parties in order to form another anti-slavery party, the stronger Free-Soil party.

* In 1842, the union workers' movement obtained a key court ruling in their favor from the Massachusetts Supreme Court, in ''[[Commonwealth v. Hunt]]''.  That decision held that it was legal for workers to organize a union and to strike. Union power was greatly increased by this ability to strike (and shut down a factory) when the employer does not give into union demands.  Some blame the collapse of the American automobile industry today and the current depression in Michigan on an abuse by unions of their great power.  The unionization of ''government'' workers recently became a national controversy, as the Wisconsin Governor seeks to terminate the basic union power of  "collective bargaining" for its ''government'' workers.

* In 1842, the union workers' movement obtained a key court ruling in their favor from the Massachusetts Supreme Court, in ''[[Commonwealth v. Hunt]]''.  That decision held that it was legal for workers to organize a union and to strike. Union power was greatly increased by this ability to strike (and shut down a factory) when the employer does not give into union demands.  Some blame the collapse of the American automobile industry today and the resultant depression in Michigan on an abuse by unions of their great power.  The unionization of ''government'' workers also became a national controversy, as the Wisconsin Governor seeks to terminate the basic union power of  "collective bargaining" for its ''government'' workers.

==James K. Polk and War with Mexico==

==James K. Polk and War with Mexico==

The Democrats officially won back the presidency with James Polk, who was supported by the still-popular but retired Andrew Jackson.  Polk was the hardest-working president ever, and even died from exhaustion soon after leaving office despite serving only one term.  He was also the first "dark horse" candidate, which means that no one expected to win even the nomination of his Democratic Party.  He was nominated to run for president only after the leading contenders were all rejected by the delegates to the Democratic National Convention.  In fact, Polk had gone to the convention hoping at most to be the vice presidential candidate for Martin Van Buren, but the former President Andrew Jackson and the Democratic Party favored Polk instead of renominating Van Buren.

The Democrats officially won back the presidency with James Polk, who was supported by the still-popular but retired Andrew Jackson.  Polk was the hardest-working president ever, and even died from exhaustion soon after leaving office despite serving only one term.  He was also the first "dark horse" candidate, which means that no one expected him to win even the nomination of his Democratic Party.  He was nominated to run for president only after the leading contenders were all rejected by the delegates to the Democratic National Convention.  In fact, Polk had gone to the convention hoping at most to be the vice presidential candidate for Martin Van Buren, but the former President Andrew Jackson and the Democratic Party favored Polk instead of renominating Van Buren.

Polk's opponent in the presidential race was the Whig Party leader Henry Clay, who scoffed at how little-known Polk was.  Clay and his supporters even made a campaign slogan of the rhetorical question, "Who is Polk?"<ref>http://www.americaslibrary.gov/cgi-bin/page.cgi/aa/presidents/polk/horse_1</ref>  Polk responded to the criticism by championing Manifest Destiny (and expansion of the nation's territory).  He supported both annexing Texas (which would become a slave state), in order to obtain support by southerners, adding Oregon as a free state, in order to gain northern votes.  The issue of Texas had become so important to Americans that Polk won on a platform of annexing Texas to the United States, and more generally on his pro-expansion position.   

Polk's opponent in the presidential race was the Whig Party leader Henry Clay, who scoffed at how little-known Polk was.  Clay and his supporters even made a campaign slogan of the rhetorical question, "Who is Polk?"<ref>http://www.americaslibrary.gov/cgi-bin/page.cgi/aa/presidents/polk/horse_1</ref>  Polk responded to the criticism by championing Manifest Destiny (and expansion of the nation's territory).  He supported both annexing Texas (which would become a slave state), in order to obtain support by southerners, adding Oregon as a free state, in order to gain northern votes.  The issue of Texas had become so important to Americans that Polk won on a platform of annexing Texas to the United States, and more generally on his pro-expansion position.   

President Polk wanted all the land for the United States.  In July 1845, he sent the commander of the U.S. Army in Texas, Zachary Taylor, to take his troops into the disputed land between the Nueces and Rio Grande rivers. In November, Polk sent Congressman John Slidell to Mexico in order to purchase the disputed area, and acquire (what is now) New Mexico and California.  This effort, known as the Slidell mission, had failed by May 1846.

President Polk wanted all the land for the United States.  In July 1845, he sent the commander of the U.S. Army in Texas, Zachary Taylor, to take his troops into the disputed land between the Nueces and Rio Grande rivers. In November, Polk sent Congressman John Slidell to Mexico in order to purchase the disputed area, and acquire (what is now) New Mexico and California.  This effort, known as the Slidell mission, had failed by May 1846.

Following the failure of Slidell's mission in May 1846, Polk tried a different approach:  find a reason to declare a war.  Polk told Congress that Mexico had attacked Taylor's army on American (Texas) soil, shedding American blood there.  Congress reacted by giving Polk the declaration of war Polk sought, on May 13, 1846.  Ever since it has been disputed where the American blood was actually shed, making this one of the big mysteries of American history.  Was the first conflict on undisputed American soil, meaning that Mexico was wrong, or on Mexican soil, meaning that Americans were the aggressor?  The official account of the United States Department of State blames ... the United States:<ref>http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/dwe/16336.htm</ref>

Following the failure of Slidell's mission in May 1846, Polk tried a different approach:  find a reason to declare a war.  Polk told Congress that Mexico had attacked Taylor's army on American (Texas) soil, shedding American blood there.  Congress reacted by giving Polk the declaration of war Polk sought, on May 13, 1846.  Ever since, it has been disputed where the American blood was actually shed, making this one of the big mysteries of American history.  Was the first conflict on undisputed American soil, meaning that Mexico was wrong, or on Mexican soil, meaning that Americans were the aggressor?  The official account of the United States Department of State blames ... the United States:<ref>http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/dwe/16336.htm</ref>

:The President neglected to inform Congress, however, that the Mexicans had used force only after Taylor's troops had positioned themselves on the banks of the Rio Grande River, which was effectively Mexican territory.  

:The President neglected to inform Congress, however, that the Mexicans had used force only after Taylor's troops had positioned themselves on the banks of the Rio Grande River, which was effectively Mexican territory.  

To win the Mexican War, the U.S. Army pushed far into Mexico territory.  In September 1847, the United States captured Mexico City.  Then Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the Department of State and Polk's emissary to negotiate a peace treaty, began discussions with the Mexican Government just as Slidell had done the prior year.  President Polk grew angry with Trist, however, for offering terms of peace that Polk thought were too generous to Mexico.  Meanwhile, Trist had become a close friend of General Winfield Scott, who was a member of the opposite Whig Party and thought to be planning to run against Polk for the presidency. Worse, the war caused the Democrats (who wanted to expand slavery) to demand complete annexation to the United States of Mexico itself!

To win the Mexican War, the U.S. Army pushed far into Mexico territory.  In September 1847, the United States captured Mexico City.  Then Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the Department of State and Polk's emissary to negotiate a peace treaty, began discussions with the Mexican Government just as Slidell had done the prior year.  President Polk grew angry with Trist, however, for offering terms of peace that Polk thought were too generous to Mexico.  Meanwhile, Trist had become a close friend of General Winfield Scott, who was a member of the opposite Whig Party and thought to be planning to run against Polk for the presidency. Worse, the war caused the Democrats (who wanted to expand slavery) to demand complete annexation to the United States of Mexico itself!

Polk fired Trist in October by demanding that he return to Washington, D.C.  But Trist ignored this "recall order" and entered into the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, signing it with Mexico in Mexico City on February 2, 1848.  This Treaty provided that:  

Polk fired Trist in October by telling him to return to Washington, D.C.  But Trist ignored this "recall order" and entered into the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, signing it with Mexico in Mexico City on February 2, 1848.  This Treaty provided that:  

*the Texas-Mexico border would be set at the Rio Grande River as Polk originally sought

*the Texas-Mexico border would be set at the Rio Grande River as Polk originally sought

The Compromise of 1850 resulted in a brief respite from the divisive conflict.  In 1853, when Pierce became president, he tried hard to prevent further conflict from breaking out, but he could not control the conflict any better than anyone else.   

The Compromise of 1850 resulted in a brief respite from the divisive conflict.  In 1853, when Pierce became president, he tried hard to prevent further conflict from breaking out, but he could not control the conflict any better than anyone else.   

In 1854, Senator Stephen Douglas pushed through the Senate the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act.  '''''Historians consider this ill-advised law to be the greatest single step towards Civil War.'''''  It replaced Missouri Compromise with Douglas's concept of "popular sovereignty" for new territories, whereby each new region could decide for itself whether to allow slavery.  This caused mini-wars over the issue, especially in Kansas.  This Act repealed the Missouri Compromise and reopened the question of slavery in the West, particularly Kansas.

In 1854, Senator Stephen Douglas pushed through the Senate the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act.  '''''Historians consider this ill-advised law to be the single greatest step towards Civil War.'''''  It replaced Missouri Compromise with Douglas's concept of "popular sovereignty" for new territories, whereby each new region could decide for itself whether to allow slavery.  This caused mini-wars over the issue, especially in Kansas.  This Act repealed the Missouri Compromise and reopened the question of slavery in the West, particularly Kansas.

Furious, anti-slavery activists founded the Republican Party in 1854 in order to:

Furious, anti-slavery activists founded the Republican Party in 1854 in order to:

*repeal the Fugitive Slave Law

*repeal the Fugitive Slave Law

*end slavery in D.C.

*end slavery in D.C.

In other words, the Republican Party of today was founded in 1854 on the moral grounds of ending slavery.  Early leaders of the Republican Party included the abolitionists Charles Sumner and George Julian, the Free-Soiler Salmon Chase, and conservative members of the Whig Party.

Above all, the Republican Party of today was founded in 1854 on the moral grounds of ending slavery.  Early leaders of the Republican Party included the abolitionists Charles Sumner and George Julian, the Free-Soiler Salmon Chase, and conservative members of the Whig Party.

Pierce would only last one term as president.  In 1854 the future President James Buchanan was working as a diplomat (which enabled him to avoid speaking out about the slavery issue).  As a diplomat Buchanan issued the Ostend Manifesto, in which he told Spain sell Cuba to the United States or lose it by force.  This was a failure and caused negative feelings, but Buchanan later became president anyway.

Pierce would only last one term as president.  In 1854 the future President James Buchanan was working as a diplomat (which enabled him to avoid speaking out about the slavery issue).  As a diplomat Buchanan issued the Ostend Manifesto, in which he told Spain to sell Cuba to the United States or lose it by force.  This was a failure and caused negative feelings, but Buchanan later became president anyway.

=="Bleeding Kansas"==

=="Bleeding Kansas"==

In retaliation, a fanatical white man named John Brown took four of his sons and two others and went to Pottawatomie in Kansas, and executed five (5) pro-slavery colonists.  This event became known as the Pottawatomie Massacre.  Unlike most abolitionists, Brown supported violent action against slavery.  As time went on, more and more blood was shed in Kansas.  Some prominent anti-slavery activists and intellectuals in the northeast, such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, even praised John Brown.

In retaliation, a fanatical white man named John Brown took four of his sons and two others and went to Pottawatomie in Kansas, and executed five (5) pro-slavery colonists.  This event became known as the Pottawatomie Massacre.  Unlike most abolitionists, Brown supported violent action against slavery.  As time went on, more and more blood was shed in Kansas.  Some prominent anti-slavery activists and intellectuals in the northeast, such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, even praised John Brown.

In the "Crime against Kansas" speech, an abolitionist Senator from Massachusetts Charles Sumner described the slave oligarchy and insulted and humiliated the absent and elderly Senator Andrew Butler of South Carolina. In retaliation, Butler's nephew, Preston Butler, who was a congressman, went into Sumner's chambers and beat him senseless with a cane.  It took Sumner many years to recover. Preston Butler immediately resigned but became such a hero to the South that he was unanimously reelected by his district.

In the "Crime against Kansas" speech, an abolitionist Senator from Massachusetts Charles Sumner described the slave oligarchy and insulted and humiliated the elderly Senator Andrew Butler of South Carolina (who was not there during Sumner's speech). In retaliation, Butler's nephew, Preston Butler, who was a congressman, went into Sumner's chambers and beat him senseless with a cane.  It took Sumner many years to recover. Preston Butler immediately resigned but became such a hero to the South that he was unanimously reelected by his district.

This entire conflict in Kansas over slavery in the 1850s was called "Bleeding Kansas" because of the violence that occurred on both sides.

This entire conflict in Kansas over slavery in the 1850s was called "Bleeding Kansas" because of the violence that occurred on both sides.  As an example of history "repeating itself," more than 120 years later Kansas became the center of national attention based on its internal conflict over the abortion issue.

The never-ratified Lecompton Constitution of Kansas was an unsuccessful attempt to stop the violence in Kansas.  This pro-slavery document was designed as a response to the positions of the abolitionists.  The Lecompton Constitution never took effect as it was first rejected by Congress and then defeated by a referendum (vote) in the state of Kansas.

The never-ratified Lecompton Constitution of Kansas was an unsuccessful attempt to stop the violence in Kansas.  This pro-slavery document was designed as a response to the positions of the abolitionists.  The Lecompton Constitution never took effect as it was first rejected by Congress and then defeated by a referendum (vote) in the state of Kansas.

Elijah Lovejoy was a pastor in St. Louis, and in 1837 he started a newspaper called the ''St. Louis Observer'', which published articles against slavery.  The opposition to his paper was so great that he had to move to Alton, Illinois.  There, he kept publishing articles against slavery.

Elijah Lovejoy was a pastor in St. Louis, and in 1837 he started a newspaper called the ''St. Louis Observer'', which published articles against slavery.  The opposition to his paper was so great that he had to move to Alton, Illinois.  There, he kept publishing articles against slavery.

But the opposition didn't cease, and Lovejoy's printing press was thrown into the river three times.  The Ohio Anti-Slavery Society gave him a new printing press, and local slave owners decided to destroy it.  A mob came over from St. Louis and Lovejoy was killed trying to protect his press.  This violence shocked the North.

But the opposition didn't cease, and Lovejoy's printing press was thrown into the river three times.  The Ohio Anti-Slavery Society gave him a new printing press, and local slave owners decided to destroy it.  A mob came over from St. Louis and Lovejoy was killed as he tried to protect his press.  This violence shocked the North.

From this history arose the political rivalry of Lincoln and Douglas, one of the greatest rivalries in all of American history.  Lincoln and Douglas were opposites in every possible way.  Lincoln was very tall, while Douglas was very short.  Lincoln had lots of dark hair,<ref>"In 1860, eleven-year-old Grace Bedell wrote to Lincoln suggesting he grow a beard to 'look a great deal better.' Lincoln replied that he thought people would think it was silly, but later changed his mind. He met her on his way to Washington, giving her a hearty kiss to thank her for her idea."[http://www.nps.gov/liho/faqs.htm]</ref> while Douglas's hair was thinning.  Lincoln was initially a Whig, Douglas was a Democrat.  Lincoln was a wealthy attorney for the powerful Railroads.  Douglas was a government attorney for the State.  Both were extremely ambitious, constantly running for public office.  Both were smarter than most in politics, and both were superb public speakers (unlike, for example, Jefferson, who avoided public speaking).  Truth be told, Douglas was an even better public speaker than Lincoln; Douglas was more compelling in style, and funnier.

From this history arose the political rivalry of Lincoln and Douglas, one of the greatest rivalries in all of American history.  Lincoln and Douglas were opposites in every possible way.  Lincoln was very tall, while Douglas was very short.  Lincoln had lots of dark hair,<ref>"In 1860, eleven-year-old Grace Bedell wrote to Lincoln suggesting he grow a beard to 'look a great deal better.' Lincoln replied that he thought people would think it was silly, but later changed his mind. He met her on his way to Washington, giving her a hearty kiss to thank her for her idea."[http://www.nps.gov/liho/faqs.htm]</ref> while Douglas's hair was thinning.  Lincoln was initially a Whig, Douglas was a Democrat.  Lincoln was a wealthy attorney for the powerful railroad companies.  Douglas was a government attorney for the State.  Both were extremely ambitious, constantly running for public office.  Both were smarter than most in politics, and both were superb public speakers (unlike, for example, Jefferson, who avoided public speaking).  Truth be told, Douglas was an even better public speaker than Lincoln; Douglas was more compelling in style, and funnier.

Originally inspired by President Andrew Jackson, Douglas quickly became leader of the Illinois Democratic Party.  Douglas was elected at the young age of 22 to be the state's top attorney. By age 28 he became an Illinois Supreme Court Justice; by age 29 he was elected to the House of Representatives in Congress.  At age 34 he was elected to the U.S. Senate, and won every reelection until he died in office.  In the U.S. Senate, he became very powerful and earned the nickname "Little Giant."  His speeches would attract huge crowds in the galleries of the Senate.  Politically, he was virtually unbeatable.   

Originally inspired by President Andrew Jackson, Douglas quickly became leader of the Illinois Democratic Party.  Douglas was elected at the young age of 22 to be the state's top attorney. By age 28 he became an Illinois Supreme Court Justice; by age 29 he was elected to the House of Representatives in Congress.  At age 34 he was elected to the U.S. Senate, and won every reelection to the U.S. Senate until he died in office.  In the U.S. Senate, he became very powerful and earned the nickname "Little Giant."  His speeches would attract huge crowds in the galleries of the Senate.  Politically, he was virtually unbeatable.   

As a Jacksonian Democrat, Douglas favored Manifest Destiny and acquiring as much property westward as possible.  The Mexican War was a way to obtain more property, so he favored it in the mid-1840s.

As a Jacksonian Democrat, Douglas favored Manifest Destiny and acquiring as much property westward as possible.  The Mexican War was a way to obtain more property, so he favored it in the mid-1840s.

Both Lincoln and Douglas looked for ways to avoid the coming Civil War.  Many Americans, beginning with Jefferson, started to worry about how slavery was ripping the country apart.  Jefferson used to wake up in a cold sweat after having nightmares about the tragic future that the United States faced over the issue.

Both Lincoln and Douglas looked for ways to avoid the coming Civil War.  Many Americans, beginning with Jefferson, started to worry about how slavery was ripping the country apart.  Jefferson used to wake up in a cold sweat after having nightmares about the tragic future that the United States faced over the issue.

In 1858, Lincoln and Douglas ran against each another for Senate.  Their debates that year became known as the Lincoln-Douglas Debates, and they dealt primarily with slavery.  In the end, Douglas won the race by a vote in the legislature (at that time legislatures, not the public, picked the U.S. Senators).  But Lincoln gained valuable publicity that helped him succeed later.  The presidential debates that are held today were inspired by the Lincoln-Douglas debates.

In 1858, Lincoln and Douglas ran against each another for Senate.  Their debates that year became known as the Lincoln-Douglas Debates, and they dealt primarily with slavery.  In the end, Douglas won the race by a vote in the legislature (prior to the ratification of the 17th Amendment in 1913, U.S. Senators were picked by state legislatures, not by the public).  But Lincoln gained valuable publicity that helped him succeed later.  The presidential debates that are held today were inspired by the Lincoln-Douglas debates.

==The Debate over Slavery==

==The Debate over Slavery==

The debate over slavery was a prolonged battle involving writers and judges as well as politicians.

The debate over slavery was a prolonged battle involving writers and judges as well as politicians.

In 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', a novel that criticizes slavery by painting a very unfavorable picture of life as a slave.  The book had an enormous impact on public sentiment and the Civil War.  Harriet Beecher Stowe was the white daughter of a prominent New England congregational minister.  When Abraham Lincoln later met her in 1862, he described her as "the little woman who wrote the book that started this great war!"<ref name="Uncle Tom">http://www.africanaonline.com/slavery_toms_cabin.htm</ref>  Then southerners criticized (and banned) the book by claiming it was horribly exaggerated; today the book is criticized for its racist stereotypes about African Americans.<ref name="Uncle Tom"/>  But no one doubts its huge impact on America, and Europe.  It may have been the best-selling book of the entire 19th century, other than the Bible.<ref name="Uncle Tom"/>

In 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', a novel that criticizes slavery by painting a very unfavorable picture of life as a slave.  The book had an enormous impact on public sentiment and the Civil War.  Harriet Beecher Stowe was the white daughter of a prominent New England congregational minister.  When Abraham Lincoln later met her in 1862, he described her as "the little woman who wrote the book that started this great war!"<ref name="Uncle Tom">http://www.africanaonline.com/slavery_toms_cabin.htm</ref>  Then southerners criticized (and banned) the book by claiming it was horribly exaggerated; today the book is criticized for its racist stereotypes about African Americans.<ref name="Uncle Tom"/>  But no one doubts its huge impact on America, and Europe.  It may have been the best-selling book of the entire 19th century, second only to the Bible.<ref name="Uncle Tom"/>

''Dred Scott v. Sanford'' was a Supreme Court decision in 1857, and (along with ''Roe v. Wade'' a century later) the most notorious Supreme Court case in history.  The ''Dred Scott'' decision ruled that blacks have no rights and cannot sue, and are not even real citizens.  It also established that Congress cannot grant freedom to slaves, because slaves are the "property" of slave owners.  With this decision, the Court sought to put an end to the questions about slavery, but the exact opposite occurred.  The ''Dred Scott'' ruling greatly heightened conflict and outrage about slavery.  Historians speculate that President James Buchanan secretly played a role in the pro-slavery outcome by communicating with Justices on the Supreme Court.

''Dred Scott v. Sanford'' was a Supreme Court decision in 1857, and (along with ''Roe v. Wade'' a century later) the most notorious Supreme Court case in history.  The ''Dred Scott'' decision ruled that blacks have no rights and cannot sue, and are not even real citizens.  It also established that Congress cannot grant freedom to slaves, because slaves are the "property" of slave owners.  With this decision, the Court sought to put an end to the questions about slavery, but the exact opposite occurred.  The ''Dred Scott'' ruling greatly heightened conflict and outrage about slavery.  Historians speculate that President James Buchanan secretly played a role in the pro-slavery outcome by communicating with Justices on the Supreme Court.