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Self-employed, Edison created one marvelous invention after another, acquiring more than 1300 U.S. and foreign patents throughout his life.  The wealth generated by Edison's work is unfathomable.

Self-employed, Edison created one marvelous invention after another, acquiring more than 1300 U.S. and foreign patents throughout his life.  The wealth generated by Edison's work is unfathomable.

A biographer credited Edison's "highly individualistic style of acquiring knowledge that eventually led him to question scores of the prevailing theories on the workings of electricity."<ref name="Edison"/>  Edison's success was not caused by any special advantages:  his family was poor and Edison himself was nearly totally deaf.  Imagine that:  '''''the inventor of the phonograph (record player) was deaf!'''''  Edison said, "Of all my inventions, I liked the phonograph best."<ref>http://www.phmuseum.org/depot/tour/phonograph.htm</ref>  In the picture of him on the prior page, he cannot fully hear what his own invention is playing.  We should remember that the next time we resort to excuses for not accomplishing what we could have.

A biographer credited Edison's "highly individualistic style of acquiring knowledge that eventually led him to question scores of the prevailing theories on the workings of electricity."<ref name="Edison"/>  Edison's success was not caused by any special advantages:  his family was poor and Edison himself was nearly totally deaf.  Imagine that:  '''''the inventor of the phonograph (record player) was deaf!'''''  Edison said, "Of all my inventions, I liked the phonograph best."<ref>http://www.phmuseum.org/depot/tour/phonograph.htm</ref>  In the picture of him on the prior page, he cannot fully hear what his own invention is playing.  We should remember that the next time we resort to excuses for not accomplishing as much as we could.

One of Edison's sons, Charles, became a conservative governor of New Jersey and was later a co-founder of the Conservative Party of New York, which remains active today.

One of Edison's sons, Charles, became a conservative governor of New Jersey and was later a co-founder of the Conservative Party of New York, which remains active today.

There were other marvelous inventions and engineering feats in the second half of the 19th century.  The Brooklyn Bridge, which still stands today on the east side of lower Manhattan (connecting it with Brooklyn), is a cable suspension bridge that was completed in 1883.  It was remarkable at its time, and heralded in many new suspension bridges to span across many American waterways.  Soon the Brooklyn Bridge enabled the transportation of 33 million persons a year, and that was before the arrival of automobiles!

There were other marvelous inventions and engineering feats in the second half of the 19th century.  The Brooklyn Bridge, which still stands today on the east side of lower Manhattan (connecting it with Brooklyn), is a cable suspension bridge that was completed in 1883.  It was remarkable at its time, and heralded in many new suspension bridges to span across other American waterways.  Soon the Brooklyn Bridge enabled the transportation of 33 million persons a year, and that was before the arrival of automobiles!

Not every invention was American, but often the Americans ("Yankees") are best at making a creation practical and most productive.  Henry Bessemer of England invented a means for converting molten pig iron into valuable steel, which was called the "Bessemer process."  The process removes impurities from the molten iron by oxidizing it with air that is blown through it.  In the 1870s Americans built steel mills, particularly in Pennsylvania, to take advantage of this process and produce large quantities of steel.  Those steel mills brought wealth to Pennsylvania for a century, until cheaper labor in Asia and a lack of protective tariffs drove the American mills out of business, leaving Pennsylvania depressed today.

Not every invention was American, but often the Americans ("Yankees") are best at making a creation practical and most productive.  Henry Bessemer of England invented a means for converting molten pig iron into valuable steel, which was called the "Bessemer process."  The process removes impurities from the molten iron by oxidizing it with air that is blown through it.  In the 1870s Americans built steel mills, particularly in Pennsylvania, to take advantage of this process and produce large quantities of steel.  Those steel mills brought wealth to Pennsylvania for a century, until cheaper labor in Asia and a lack of protective tariffs drove the American mills out of business, leaving Pennsylvania depressed today.

Not everyone was completely pleased with the booming prosperity of the United States in the decades after the Civil War.  A popular writer and humorist from Missouri, whose pen name was "Mark Twain" (his real name was Samue Clemens), criticized the decades after the Civil War by calling them the "Gilded Age."

Not everyone was completely pleased with the booming prosperity of the United States in the decades after the Civil War.  A popular writer and humorist from Missouri, whose pen name was "Mark Twain" (his real name was Samue Clemens), criticized the decades after the Civil War by calling them the "Gilded Age."

He described this era towards (from the end of the Civil War through the 1880s) as "gilded" because it appeared golden, but beneath the shiny surface was greed, corruption and hardship.  Mark Twain wrote a novel by that name in which Washington, D.C., was run by greedy businessmen and corrupt government officials.  (Mark Twain wrote several other influential novels, including "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn," describing a fictional journey on a raft on the Mississippi).   

He described this era (from the end of the Civil War through the 1880s) as "gilded" because it appeared golden, but beneath the shiny surface was greed, corruption and hardship.  Mark Twain even wrote a novel by that name, in which Washington, D.C., was run by greedy businessmen and corrupt government officials.  (Mark Twain wrote several other influential novels, including "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn," describing a fictional journey on a raft on the Mississippi).   

The Gilded Age featured "robber barons," who were people who became extremely wealthy through ruthless business practices.  The worst "robber baron" was Jay Gould, a financier on Wall Street who committed rampant fraud by printing false stock certificates to defraud investors.  He even tried to corner the gold market in 1869.  That led to a financial panic known as Black Friday.  After Gould drove up the price of gold by hoarding it, President Grant learned of the scheme and started selling the government gold reserves on the market to cause the price to fall.  The price of gold then fell sharply, and many lost everything they had.  Gould, however, had sold out at the highest price to make the biggest profit!

In real life, the Gilded Age featured "robber barons," who were people who became extremely wealthy through ruthless business practices.  The worst "robber baron" was Jay Gould, a financier on Wall Street who committed rampant fraud by printing false stock certificates to defraud investors.  He even tried to corner the gold market in 1869.  That led to a financial panic known as Black Friday.  After Gould drove up the price of gold by hoarding it, President Grant learned of the scheme and started selling the government gold reserves on the market to cause the price to fall.  The price of gold then fell sharply, and many lost their savings.  Gould, however, had sold out at the highest price to make the biggest profit!

There were also phenomenal business successes during this era.  Andrew Carnegie immigrated from Scotland without any money and ended up with massive wealth from founding the Carnegie Steel Co. (later became U.S. Steel Co.).  He amassed a fortune that he then donated to build structures like Carnegie Hall, Carnegie-Mellon University, and the enormous New York Public Library (plus 2800 other public libraries).  He wrote the "Gospel of Wealth" in 1900 to describe his vision of capitalism.

There were also phenomenal business successes during this era.  Andrew Carnegie immigrated from Scotland without any money and ended up with massive wealth from founding the Carnegie Steel Co. (later became U.S. Steel Co.).  He amassed a fortune that he then donated to build structures like Carnegie Hall, Carnegie-Mellon University, and the enormous New York Public Library (plus 2800 other public libraries).  He wrote the "Gospel of Wealth" in 1900 to describe his vision of capitalism.

The big issue in 1880 was the "spoils system," which was an important part of the political "machines" common at the time.  The view of many politicians, from President Andrew Jackson to President Ulysses S. Grant, was that the victor in an election should be able to "clean house" and install his supporters in the new Administration.  Under the "spoils system" or "patronage system," the winner of an election gets to hand out government jobs to his supporters.  "To the victors go the spoils," is the famous saying for this.   

The big issue in 1880 was the "spoils system," which was an important part of the political "machines" common at the time.  The view of many politicians, from President Andrew Jackson to President Ulysses S. Grant, was that the victor in an election should be able to "clean house" and install his supporters in the new Administration.  Under the "spoils system" or "patronage system," the winner of an election gets to hand out government jobs to his supporters.  "To the victors go the spoils," is the famous saying for this.   

The "Stalwarts" in the Republican Party favored the spoils system, which insured that holdovers who disagreed with the winner would be fired and everyone in the new Administration would agree with the new leader.  These Stalwarts included former Radical Republicans.  Opposed to the Stalwarts were moderates like Blaine and Garfield, who wanted a civil service system where a government employee would keep his job even after a new leader is elected.  They sought so-called "reform" of the spoils system to stop the corruption that a spoils system might lead to.

The "Stalwarts" in the Republican Party favored the spoils system, whereby the new president would fire the holdovers from the prior Administration, and everyone in the new Administration would then be in agreement with the new leader.  These Stalwarts included former Radical Republicans.  Opposed to the Stalwarts were moderates like Blaine and Garfield, who wanted a civil service system where a government employee would keep his job even after a new leader is elected.  They sought so-called "reform" of the spoils system to stop the corruption that a spoils system might lead to.

After many "ballots" (mini-elections) among the delegates at the 1880 Republican National Convention, Blaine realized he could not win.  He and Sherman then withdrew their candidacies and threw their support behind a "dark horse" candidate, James Garfield.  At first Garfield refused to be a candidate, but delegates elected (nominated) him anyway, on the 36th ballot!  The delegates had met for days in a hot summer convention center in Chicago, without air conditioning, and debated and voted 36 times before nominating James Garfield, who was a former Union general and a current Republican congressman.

After many "ballots" (mini-elections) among the delegates at the 1880 Republican National Convention, Blaine realized he could not win.  He and Sherman then withdrew their candidacies and threw their support behind a "dark horse" candidate, James Garfield.  At first Garfield refused to be a candidate, but delegates elected (nominated) him anyway, on the 36th ballot!  The delegates had met for days in a hot summer convention center in Chicago, without air conditioning, and debated and voted 36 times before nominating James Garfield, who was a former Union general and a current Republican congressman.

But Stalwarts, like a powerful Republican Party Senator from New York, Roscoe Conkling, supported the "spoils system" and opposed Garfield and Blaine over it.  To appease the Stalwarts and try to earn their support, Garfield picked a Stalwart, Chester Arthur, as his running mate (Vice President).   

But Stalwarts, like a powerful Republican Party Senator from New York, Roscoe Conkling, supported the "spoils system" and opposed Garfield and Blaine over it.  To appease the Stalwarts and try to earn their support, Garfield picked a Stalwart, Chester Arthur, as his running mate (Vice President).   

Garfield, however, did not compromise after he was sworn into office.  He appointed an anti-Stalwart and arch-rival of Senator Conkling to run the New York Customs House, which was a key position that Conkling had expected to fill based on patronage.  Garfield insulted Conkling in order to establish that the president had control over these positions based on merit, rather than local senators based on patronage.

President Garfield, however, did not compromise after he was sworn into office.  He appointed an anti-Stalwart rival of Senator Conkling to run the New York Customs House, which was a key position that Conkling thought he would be appointed to.  Garfield insulted Conkling in order to establish that the president had control over these positions based on merit, rather than based on patronage that benefited senators.

Conkling contested this nomination and tried to block it in the U.S. Senate.  Conkling even arranged for the Senate to confirm all of Garfield's uncontested nominations except this one; Garfield responded by withdrawing all those other nominations except the one that Conkling opposed!  That forced the other senators to choose between Conkling and all the other nominees, who were friends of other senators.  Conkling, having been checkmated, resigned in protest in the expectation that he would be reappointed by the New York legislature to his position.  Fed up, however, the New York legislature refused to reappoint him (in those days U.S. Senators were picked by the legislatures rather than elected by the people), and Conkling was gone from the Senate.  The issue had thereby been resolved in Garfield's favor and against the Stalwarts.<ref>http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/jg20.html</ref>

Furious, Conkling opposed this nomination of his rival, and tried to block it in the U.S. Senate.  Conkling even arranged for the Senate to confirm all of Garfield's other nominations except this one; Garfield responded by withdrawing all those other nominations except the one that Conkling opposed!  This forced the other senators to choose between Conkling and all the other nominees, who were friends of other senators.  Conkling, having been checkmated politically, resigned in protest in the expectation that he would be reappointed by the New York legislature to his position.  Fed up, however, the New York legislature refused to reappoint him (in those days U.S. Senators were picked by the legislatures rather than elected by the people), and Conkling was gone from the Senate.  The issue had thereby been resolved in Garfield's favor and against the Stalwarts.<ref>http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/jg20.html</ref>

But then tragedy struck Garfield.  On July 2, 1881, in a railroad station in Washington, D.C., an embittered attorney, who had unsuccessfully sought a consular post, shot President Garfield.  Garfield then lived for several weeks as experts from around the country examined his wound, and tried to get the bullet out.  Garfield even asked Alexander Graham Bell to develop a device (an induction-balance electrical gadget) to find the bullet.  Nothing worked, and all the doctors who probed Garfield's wound had the effect of infecting him.  This was before doctors took better care to sterilize instruments and wash their hands to kill the germs.

But then tragedy struck Garfield.  On July 2, 1881, in a railroad station in Washington, D.C., an embittered attorney, who had unsuccessfully sought a consular post, shot President Garfield.  Garfield then lived for several weeks as experts from around the country examined his wound, and tried to get the bullet out.  Garfield even asked Alexander Graham Bell to develop a device (an induction-balance electrical gadget) to find the bullet.  Nothing worked, and all the doctors who probed Garfield's wound had the effect of infecting him.  This was before doctors took better care to sterilize instruments and wash their hands to kill the germs.

== The Grange Movement ==

== The Grange Movement ==

Not everyone in America was happy with Republican dominance in the White House, or with unregulated free enterprise in the economy.  Many farmers, for example, felt that railroads were charging prices that were too high.  From 1867 to 1874, there was a political movement for States to regulate the prices charged by railroads, which was led by "Granger" politicians.  A leader in "The Grange Movement" was Oliver Kelley, a former official in the U.S. Department of Agriculture.  Initially the Grange was devoted to social gatherings and educational programs for farmers, who otherwise had a somewhat isolated and tedious lifestyle.  

Not everyone in America was happy with Republican dominance in the White House, or with unregulated free enterprise in the economy.  Many farmers, for example, felt that railroads were charging prices that were too high.  From 1867 to 1874, there was a political movement for States to regulate the prices charged by railroads, which was led by "Granger" politicians.  A leader in the "Grange Movement" was Oliver Kelley, a former official in the U.S. Department of Agriculture.  Initially the "Grange" (the short name for the farmers in the Grange Movement) was devoted to social gatherings and educational programs for farmers, who otherwise had a somewhat isolated and tedious lifestyle.  

In many ways farmers in the 1870s were like homeschoolers today:  divided and lacking in political force.  The Grange Movement attempted to change that.  When there was a financial crisis known as the Panic of 1873, the Grange surged in popularity among farmers who had too much debt and faced expensive rates to ship their goods on the railroads.  Popularity grew in the farm States of Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin and Illinois, and the Grangers were able to pass "Granger laws" to regulate the railroads and storage facilities for the benefit of farmers.<ref>http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h854.html</ref>

In many ways, farmers in the 1870s were like homeschoolers today:  divided and lacking in political force.  The Grange Movement attempted to change that.  When there was a financial crisis known as the Panic of 1873, the Grange surged in popularity among farmers who had too much debt and faced expensive rates to ship their goods on the railroads.  Popularity grew in the farm States of Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin and Illinois, and the Grangers were able to pass "Granger laws" to regulate the railroads and storage facilities for the benefit of farmers.<ref>http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h854.html</ref>

The owner of a grain elevator (which charges farmers to store their grain) fought an Illinois Granger law all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court in ''Munn v. Illinois'', decided in 1876.  That decision upheld the power of States to regulate (lower or limit increases in) the rates charged by grain warehouses or any other public facility made available for the general public good, such as railroads.  This ruling in favor of the farmers energized the populist movement.  But a subsequent lawsuit brought by the railroads to challenge State regulation of railroad contracts, the ''Wabash'' case (1886), invalidated the State regulation and put the farmers back to square one (powerless to regulate).  The ''Wabash'' case led to the federal government ultimately intervening in favor of the farmers by creating the Interstate Commerce Commission in the Interstate Commerce Act (1887).  This new federal agency, known by its initials as the "ICC", regulates railroad rates and the terms of use in its contracts with the public.

The owner of a grain elevator (which charges farmers to store their grain) fought an Illinois Granger law all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court in ''Munn v. Illinois'', decided in 1876.  That decision upheld the power of States to regulate (lower or limit increases in) the rates charged by grain warehouses or any other public facility made available for the general public good, such as railroads.  This ruling in favor of the farmers energized the populist movement.  But a subsequent lawsuit brought by the railroads to challenge State regulation of railroad contracts, the ''Wabash'' case (1886), invalidated the State regulation and put the farmers back to square one (powerless to regulate).  The ''Wabash'' case led to the federal government ultimately intervening in favor of the farmers by creating the Interstate Commerce Commission in the Interstate Commerce Act (1887).  This new federal agency, known by its initials as the "ICC", regulated railroad rates and the terms of use in its contracts with the public.

The Grange Movement reached its zenith (peak) in 1875.  It then began to decline as its activists started other organizations: the Greenback Party (in the 1870s), the Farmers' Alliances (in the 1880s) and the Populist Party (in the 1890s, which eventually joined with the Democratic Party).

The Grange Movement reached its zenith (peak) in 1875.  It then began to decline as its activists started other organizations: the Greenback Party (in the 1870s), the Farmers' Alliances (in the 1880s) and the Populist Party (in the 1890s, which eventually joined with the Democratic Party).