Changes

In 1890, the McKinley Tariff established the highest tariffs ever, but in a compromise it did make sugar "duty free" (no tariff on sugar).  Other than sugar, prices increased on goods and products due to the higher tariffs.  These higher tariffs reflected the continued dominance by the Republican Party, which controlled the White House in 1890 (Benjamin Harrison, the grandson of William Henry Harrison, was president).  Partly due to public outrage over the higher tariffs, the Democratic Party won many seats in Congress in the 1890 elections after the McKinley Tariff was enacted.

In 1890, the McKinley Tariff established the highest tariffs ever, but in a compromise it did make sugar "duty free" (no tariff on sugar).  Other than sugar, prices increased on goods and products due to the higher tariffs.  These higher tariffs reflected the continued dominance by the Republican Party, which controlled the White House in 1890 (Benjamin Harrison, the grandson of William Henry Harrison, was president).  Partly due to public outrage over the higher tariffs, the Democratic Party won many seats in Congress in the 1890 elections after the McKinley Tariff was enacted.

In 1894, the Wilson-Gorman Tariff and Income Tax Act passed, which added an income tax to even more tariffs.  In the case of ''Pollack v. Farmers Loan and Trust Company'', the Supreme Court declared the Income Tax Act unconstitutional because it did not apportion the tax by population as required by the Constitution.<ref>The U.S. Constitution, Article I, Section 9, paragraph 4, states that "No Capitation [head], or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken."</ref><ref>The Supreme Court had allowed other types of taxes, such as an income tax during the Civil War and an inheritance tax. See http://www.reason.com/news/show/30860.html</ref>  The Supreme Court decision required a constitutional amendment (the 16th Amendment) to be passed before allowing a direct taxation based purely on income without regard for population.

In 1894, the Wilson-Gorman Tariff and Income Tax Act passed, which added an income tax along with increased tariffs.  In the case of ''Pollack v. Farmers Loan and Trust Company'', the Supreme Court declared the Income Tax Act unconstitutional because it did not apportion the tax by population as required by the Constitution.<ref>The U.S. Constitution, Article I, Section 9, paragraph 4, states that "No Capitation [head], or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken."</ref><ref>The Supreme Court had allowed other types of taxes, such as an income tax during the Civil War and an inheritance tax. See http://www.reason.com/news/show/30860.html</ref>  The Supreme Court decision required a constitutional amendment (the 16th Amendment) to be passed before allowing a direct taxation based purely on income without regard for population.

== The Conservative Democrat ==

== The Conservative Democrat ==

After Chester Arthur served out the presidential term for the late James Garfield, Republicans were so unhappy with Arthur that they did not renominate him.  Meanwhile, the Democratic Party -- which had not won a presidential election in nearly 30 years, turned to a conservative candidate from the Republican State of New York: Grover Cleveland.  The Democrats hoped that by nominating the conservative Grover Cleveland they could pick up some Republican support and finally win a presidential election.

After Chester Arthur served out the presidential term for the late James Garfield, Republicans were so unhappy with Arthur that they did not renominate him.  Meanwhile, the Democratic Party -- which had not won a presidential election in nearly 30 years -- turned to a conservative candidate from the Republican State of New York: Grover Cleveland.  The Democrats hoped that by nominating the conservative Grover Cleveland they could pick up some Republican support and finally win a presidential election.

His opponent was the Republican Senator James Blaine from Maine, who was a liberal (or a "moderate").  Blaine is best known today for his opposition to funding by States of religiously affiliated schools (and particularly Catholic schools).  In 1875, Blaine tried to amend the U.S. Constitution to prohibit States from providing any funding to religiously affiliated elementary and high schools.  When that failed, his "Blaine Amendment" was incorporated into 36 State Constitutions, where they remain today and frustrate school voucher programs.<ref>http://pewforum.org/events/rss.php?EventID=194</ref>  A recent effort in Florida to establish school vouchers and to repeal the Blaine Amendment there failed.

His opponent was the Republican Senator James Blaine from Maine, who was a liberal (or a "moderate").  Blaine is best known today for his opposition to funding by States of religiously affiliated schools (and particularly Catholic schools).  In 1875, Blaine tried to amend the U.S. Constitution to prohibit States from providing any funding to religiously affiliated elementary and high schools.  When that failed, his "Blaine Amendment" was incorporated into 36 State Constitutions, where they remain today and frustrate school voucher programs.<ref>http://pewforum.org/events/rss.php?EventID=194</ref>  A referendum in Florida in 2012 to establish school vouchers and to repeal the Blaine Amendment in the Florida Constitution failed by a vote of 55-45%.

Some key eastern Republicans opposed James Blaine in 1884 due to scandals, and supported Grover Cleveland for president instead.  These Republicans were known as the "Mugwumps"; they felt Blaine could not be trusted, and they were probably right!  The defection by the Mugwumps to support Cleveland enabled him to win his key home state of New York, despite its Republican tradition at the time.  (Today New York is very Democratic.)

Some key eastern Republicans opposed James Blaine in 1884 due to scandals, and supported Grover Cleveland for president instead.  These Republicans were known as the "Mugwumps"; they felt Blaine could not be trusted, and they were probably right!  The defection by the Mugwumps to support Cleveland enabled him to win his key home state of New York, despite its Republican tradition at the time.  (Today New York is very Democratic.)

In 1888, Cleveland faced a new Republican challenger for president, Benjamin Harrison.  Cleveland won more votes, but Harrison won more electoral college votes and thereby won this close election.  Harrison, who was from Indiana and enjoyed the popularity of his grandfather (who had been president), favored protective tariffs and increasing veterans' pay.

In 1888, Cleveland faced a new Republican challenger for president, Benjamin Harrison.  Cleveland won more votes, but Harrison won more electoral college votes and thereby won this close election.  Harrison, who was from Indiana and enjoyed the popularity of his grandfather (who had been president), favored protective tariffs and increasing veterans' pay.

Cleveland came back for a rematch in the presidential election of 1892, and beat Harrison that time.  But then he was faced with the financial Panic of 1893, during which hundreds of banks and businesses failed, President Cleveland was criticized for doing nothing, but refusing to bail out the banks is a conservative solution.  In fall 2008, President Bush and Congress did bail out the banks, in contrast to Cleveland's conservative approach.

Cleveland came back for a rematch in the presidential election of 1892, and beat Harrison that time.  But then he was faced with the financial Panic of 1893, during which hundreds of banks and businesses failed. President Cleveland was criticized for doing nothing, but refusing to bail out the banks is a conservative solution.  In fall 2008, President Bush and Congress did bail out the banks, in contrast to Cleveland's conservative approach.

The Panic of 1893 caused a wealthy Ohio populist who had been hurt by it to lead a march on Washington, D.C., setting a precedent for "marching on Washington."  Jacob Coxey promised to gather 10,000, but by the time he arrived in D.C. "Coxey's Army" consisted of only 500 people, which is still enough to attract attention.  But the conservative Cleveland held his ground:<ref>http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=583</ref>

The Panic of 1893 caused a wealthy Ohio populist who had been hurt by it to lead a march on Washington, D.C., setting a precedent for "marching on Washington."  Jacob Coxey promised to gather 10,000, but by the time he arrived in D.C. "Coxey's Army" consisted of only 500 people, which was still enough to attract attention.  But the conservative Cleveland held his ground:<ref>http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=583</ref>

:Upon arriving in Washington, Coxey and his supporters demanded that the federal government immediately assist workers by hiring them to work on public projects such as roads and government buildings. The United States Congress and President Grover Cleveland refused. Law enforcement officials arrested Coxey for trespassing on public property. Coxey's Army quickly dispersed upon its leader's arrest.

:Upon arriving in Washington, Coxey and his supporters demanded that the federal government immediately assist workers by hiring them to work on public projects such as roads and government buildings. The United States Congress and President Grover Cleveland refused. Law enforcement officials arrested Coxey for trespassing on public property. Coxey's Army quickly dispersed upon its leader's arrest.

Historians cite this march on Washington as an example of how Americans increasingly looked to the national government to solve their problems.

Historians cite this march on Washington as an example of how Americans increasingly looked to the national government to solve their problems.

Cleveland also held his ground against problems instigated by unions.  He put down ("broke") the (railroad) Pullman Strike in Chicago in 1894.

Cleveland also held his ground against problems instigated by unions.  He put down ("broke") the Pullman Strike against the railroads in Chicago in 1894.

== Preparing for the "Turn of the Century" ==

== Preparing for the "Turn of the Century" ==

Recall from our prior lecture that William Jennings Bryan won the Democratic nomination in 1896 with a stirring, but perhaps misguided, speech entitled the "Cross of Gold" (which advocated use of silver).  He united the Populist Party with the Democratic Party by opposing high tariffs, and he ran and lost for president in 1896, 1900 and 1908.  Despite losing repeatedly, he was the single most influential person in the Democratic Party for two decades, and helped secure the Democratic nomination (and election) for Woodrow Wilson in 1912.  Bryan then served as the Secretary of State under Wilson, until Bryan became the first and only Secretary of State to resign entirely based on principle: his moral opposition to World War I.

Recall from our prior lecture that William Jennings Bryan won the Democratic nomination in 1896 with a stirring, but perhaps misguided, speech entitled the "Cross of Gold" (which advocated use of silver).  He united the Populist Party with the Democratic Party by opposing high tariffs, and he ran and lost for president in 1896, 1900 and 1908.  Despite losing repeatedly, he was the single most influential person in the Democratic Party for two decades, and helped secure the Democratic nomination (and election) for Woodrow Wilson in 1912.  Bryan then served as the Secretary of State under Wilson, until Bryan became the first and only Secretary of State to resign entirely based on principle: his moral opposition to World War I.

Bryan is someone who might be called a "fundamentalist" today.  He adhered to the teachings of the Bible, he supported Prohibition (the banning of alcohol), and he opposed teaching in public schools that man had evolved.  Bryan also opposed U.S. imperialism.  He had many opponents in the more liberal newspapers, particularly later in life, but no one doubted that he was a man of strong principles.  We will return to his career in one more lecture when we discuss the 1920s.

Bryan was someone who might be called a "Christian fundamentalist" today.  He adhered to the teachings of the Bible, he supported Prohibition (the banning of alcohol), and he opposed teaching in public schools that humans were somehow the result of evolution.  Bryan also opposed imperialism by the United States.  He had many opponents in the more liberal newspapers, particularly later in life, but no one doubted that he was a man of strong principles.  We will return to his career in a future lecture when we discuss the 1920s.

The Populist Party no longer exists today but it had an enormous influence on the development of the United States.  Its platform included demands for the secret ballot, the direct election of senators, the right of citizens to have referenda or initiatives to change their state laws directly (many states, including New Jersey, just held these on Election Day on Tuesday), reforms of banks, and a "graduated" income tax that charges a higher percentage of wealthy people than of poor people.  All of these ideas eventually became law.  The Populist Party was also pro-silver and argued for a government takeover of the railroads.  Many farmers supported the Populist Party, which reached its zenith in the 1890s.  It disappeared because economic conditions improved and because it took an unpopular position against the Spanish-American War (note how wars often end the life of political parties!).

The Populist Party no longer exists today but it had an enormous influence on the development of the United States.  Its platform included demands for the secret ballot, the direct election of senators, the right of citizens to have referenda or initiatives to change their state laws directly (New Jersey voters just passed two laws on Election Day), reforms of banks, and a "graduated" income tax that charges a higher percentage of wealthy people than of poor people.  All of these ideas eventually became law.  The Populist Party was also pro-silver and argued for a government takeover of the railroads.  Many farmers supported the Populist Party, which reached its zenith in the 1890s.  It disappeared because economic conditions improved and because it took an unpopular position against the Spanish-American War (note how wars often end the life of political parties!).

The Republican Party recaptured the White House in 1896, as a Republican from Ohio named William McKinley was elected.  His Irish name helped attract support of large numbers of Scotch-Irish immigrants.  McKinley favored the gold standard.  After being reelected in 1900, he was assassinated in 1901 by an unemployed anarchist.  Teddy Roosevelt, his Vice President, then became President and served until 1908.

The Republican Party recaptured the White House in 1896, as a Republican from Ohio named William McKinley was elected.  His Irish name helped attract support of large numbers of Scotch-Irish immigrants.  McKinley favored the gold standard.  After being reelected in 1900, he was assassinated in 1901 in Buffalo by an unemployed anarchist, and 96-foot tall obelisk (a mini-Washington Monument) was built in the center of the Buffalo to honor him.  Teddy Roosevelt, his Vice President, then became President and held power until 1908.

== Imperialism ==

== Imperialism ==

In the 1890s the two leading publishers were Joseph Pulitzer, who published the New York World, and William Randolph Hearst, who published the New York Journal.  They were in a "circulation war," with each running more and more sensationalistic headlines to try to sell more papers.  The result of their greed for power and influence was the Spanish-American War.

In the 1890s the two leading publishers were Joseph Pulitzer, who published the New York World, and William Randolph Hearst, who published the New York Journal.  They were in a "circulation war," with each running more and more sensationalistic headlines to try to sell more papers.  The result of their greed for power and influence was the Spanish-American War.

In 1895, some Cubans wanted to become independent from Spain.  Americans seemed to like the idea.  It would push Spain back to Europe.  This idea also sparked idealism, reminding people of our own American Revolution.  Big business like the idea also, because it saw ways to profit from the island.  So newspapers whipped the public into the mood for war, which the United States had not experienced since the Civil War, over 30 years earlier.

In 1895, some Cubans wanted to become independent from Spain.  Americans seemed to like the idea.  It would push Spain back to Europe.  This idea also sparked idealism, reminding people of our own American Revolution.  Big Business like the idea too, because it saw ways to profit from the island.  So newspapers whipped the public into the mood for war, which the United States had not experienced since the Civil War, over 30 years earlier.

== Spanish-American War ==

== Spanish-American War ==

Two specific events triggered this war:  the Spanish minister to the U.S., Enrique Dubuy de Lome, wrote a secret letter insulting our president, William McKinley, by calling him a "low politician."  Cuban rebels intercepted it and leaked it to the press.  The second event was an explosion on the battleship "Maine" in the Havana, Cuba harbor.  The ship sunk, and immediately the press blamed Spain.  In fact, the explosion was probably just an accident.

Two specific events triggered this war:  the Spanish minister to the U.S., Enrique Dubuy de Lome, wrote a secret letter insulting our president, William McKinley, by calling him a "low politician."  Cuban rebels intercepted it and leaked it to the press.  The second event was an explosion on the battleship "Maine" in the Havana, Cuba harbor.  The ship sunk, and immediately the press blamed Spain.  In fact, the explosion was probably merely an accident.

As a result of newspaper sensationalism about these events, the United States declared war on Spain in 1898, and began fighting them in the Spanish colonies of the Philippines and Cuba.  The Teller Amendment added to the congressional war declaration a promise of self-determination ("freedom") for Cuba.   

As a result of newspaper sensationalism about these events, the United States declared war on Spain in 1898, and began fighting them in the Spanish colonies of the Philippines and Cuba.  The Teller Amendment added to the congressional war declaration a promise of self-determination ("freedom") for Cuba.