Changes

== Invention of the Western Alphabet ==

== Invention of the Western Alphabet ==

Linguistics, which means the study of language, is a fascinating aspect of World history.  A language is essential to the progress and survival of a society - the better the language, the more successful the society is able to become.  Peoples and cultures having only primitive languages could not withstand against peoples and cultures having more powerful languages.  Language expresses and communicates ideas, and facilitates the trade that brings wealth to a civilization.  Observe for yourself how difficult it is, if not impossible, to think about and remember an idea without a term to express it.   

Linguistics, which means the study of language, is a fascinating aspect of World history.  A language is essential to the progress and survival of a society - the better the language, the more successful the society becomes.  Cultures having only primitive languages could not survive against rival groups having more powerful languages.  Language expresses and communicates ideas, and facilitates the trade that brings wealth to a civilization.  Observe for yourself how difficult it is, if not impossible, to think about and remember an idea without a term to express it.   

All languages develop based on common and basic aspects of life, such as language needed to describe food, animals, daily activities and commerce or trade (like the word "coin").  But much more is needed in language in order to express the intangibles, such as religious concepts.  Christianity could not develop and spread without a language capable of communicating its concepts.  Had Christ come into this world in 2000 or 1000 B.C., would there have been a language powerful enough to express His ideas?  Probably not.  Note that even Ancient Hebrew lacked vowels, and most non-Hebrew languages were very primitive.   

All languages develop based on common and basic aspects of life, such as terms  needed to describe food, animals, daily activities and commerce or trade (like the word "coin").  But much more is needed in language in order to express the intangibles, such as religious concepts.  Christianity could not develop and spread without a language capable of communicating its concepts.  Had Christ come into this world in 2000 or 1000 B.C., would there have been a language powerful enough to express His ideas?  Probably not.  Notice that even Ancient Hebrew lacked vowels, and most non-Hebrew languages were very primitive.   

An example of a concept that Jesus needed to express was the "Holy Spirit."  Almost no language can convey the full meaning of this concept.  The Greek words "pneuma" (wind or breath) and "paraclete" (advocate or one who consoles) are what the Gospel of John uses, and those words capture the guiding, driving force of the Holy Spirit.  The English word "spirit" fails to convey the full meaning of the Greek.  Most languages in the world have smaller vocabularies than English, and thus have even greater difficulty capturing the essence of what we call the "Holy Spirit" and other key concepts of Christianity.

An example of a concept that Jesus needed to express was the "Holy Spirit."  Almost no language can convey the full meaning of this concept.  The Greek words "pneuma" (wind or breath) and "paraclete" (advocate or one who consoles) are what the Gospel of John uses, and those words capture the guiding, driving force of the Holy Spirit.  The English word "spirit" fails to convey the full meaning of the Greek.  Most languages in the world have smaller vocabularies than English, and thus have even greater difficulty capturing the essence of what we call the "Holy Spirit" and other key concepts of Christianity.

The new language developed by the Phoenicians to facilitate their trading was based on an alphabet of 22 letters.  All Western alphabets, such as English and French and Italian and Greek and Latin, were developed using this Phoenician alphabet.  This Phoenician alphabet was one of the greatest advances in the history of mankind, perhaps greater than the invention of the wheel, because now language could begin to describe powerful concepts and abstract ideas.  This laid the foundation for the accomplishments of Ancient Greece, which in turn laid the foundation for the teaching and spread of Christianity.

The new language developed by the Phoenicians to facilitate their trading was based on an alphabet of 22 letters.  All Western alphabets, such as English and French and Italian and Greek and Latin, were developed using this Phoenician alphabet.  This Phoenician alphabet was one of the greatest advances in the history of mankind, perhaps greater than the invention of the wheel, because now language could begin to describe powerful concepts and abstract ideas.  This laid the foundation for the accomplishments of Ancient Greece, which in turn laid the foundation for the teaching and spread of Christianity.

Mystery:  What was the level of literacy in ancient civilizations?  What percentage of people could read and write?  Was literacy higher or lower than literacy today?

'''Mystery''':  What was the level of literacy in ancient civilizations?  What percentage of people could read and write?  Was literacy higher or lower than literacy today?

== Ancient Greece ==

== Ancient Greece ==

[[Image:beginnings_hist_greece.jpg|550px]]

[[Image:beginnings_hist_greece.jpg|550px]]

The beginning of the ancient or classical Greece (see map above) was around 750 B.C., and its peak was 500-336 B.C. when Greece consisted of many small city-states, each comprising a city and surrounding countryside.

The beginning of the ancient or classical Greece (see map above) was 776 B.C. The peak of ancient or classical Greece was 500-336 B.C. when Greece consisted of many small city-states, each comprising a city and surrounding countryside.

Why is ancient or classical Greece dated from about 750 B.C.?  After all, the Greeks probably migrated southward into the Greek peninsula as early as about 1600 B.C.  But from 1600 to 1100 B.C. was a period known as Mycenaean Greece, when progress was slow and few noteworthy advances were produced.  The period from 1100 to 800 B.C. was the "dark ages," during which there was little progress and from which little survived.  The momentous event that heralded the beginning of ancient or classical Greece was the first Olympic Games in 776 B.C.  This played a unifying role for the culture, and the Olympics were then held every four years for nearly 1000 years before disappearing until A.D. 1896.  The location of the summer Olympics in 2012 will be in London.

Why didn't classical Greece begin before 776 B.C.?  After all, Greeks migrated southward into the Greek peninsula as early as about 1600 B.C.  But from 1600 to 1100 B.C. was a period known as Mycenaean Greece, when progress was slow and few noteworthy advances were produced.  The period from 1100 to 800 B.C. was the "dark ages," during which there was little progress and from which little survived.  The momentous event that heralded the beginning of ancient or classical Greece was the first Olympic Games in 776 B.C.  This played a unifying role for the culture, and the Olympics were then held every four years for nearly 1000 years until A.D. 393, when they ended.  They were restarted in A.D. 1896, and again held every four years.  (The winter Olympics did not begin until A.D. 1924, in France.)

Beginning around 776 B.C., Greece then thrived for hundreds of years, until Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C.  Afterward the term "Hellenistic Greece" is used to describe the region.  Greece's land extended far and wide during this period, even to where Jesus would teach near Jerusalem.  Ultimately the Roman empire conquered Greece in 146 B.C.

Greece thrived for hundreds of years, from 776 B.C. until Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C.  Afterward the term "Hellenistic Greece" is used to describe the region.  Greece's land extended far and wide during this period, even to Jerusalem.  Ultimately the Roman empire conquered Greece in 146 B.C.

Around 800 B.C., the Greeks formed their alphabet by borrowing from the Phoenician alphabet and adding vowels to it, and this sparked the progress and learning that we remember ancient Greece for.  The spread of this new alphabet provides written records pf Greek society, culture, and life which survive today.  Greece divided itself into many small self-governing communities because of Greek geography, which made travel and communication between areas difficult.  In Greece, every region is separated from its neighbors by water or mountain ranges.  '''Once again we see how geography shaped history: the terrain of ancient Greece led the people to create city-states'''.  (Earlier we saw how the geography of Egypt supported the rise and power of that civilization and prevented its boundaries from changing, even when it was conquered.)

Around 800 B.C., the Greeks formed their alphabet by borrowing from the Phoenician alphabet and adding vowels to it, and this sparked the progress and learning that we remember ancient Greece for.  The spread of this new alphabet provides written records pf Greek society, culture, and life which survive today.  Greece divided itself into many small self-governing communities because of Greek geography, which made travel and communication between areas difficult.  In Greece, every region is separated from its neighbors by water or mountain ranges.  '''Once again we see how geography shaped history: the terrain of ancient Greece led the people to create city-states'''.  (Earlier we saw how the geography of Egypt supported the rise and power of that civilization and prevented its boundaries from changing, even when it was conquered.)

Athens instituted a semi-constitutional system of government run by aristocrats, most notably Pisistratus and his sons. Ultimately the Pisistratids lost power, and '''the world's first democracy was established in 500 B.C. in Athens'''  The powerful body became an assembly open to all (male) citizens.

Athens instituted a semi-constitutional system of government run by aristocrats, most notably Pisistratus and his sons. Ultimately the Pisistratids lost power, and '''the world's first democracy was established in 500 B.C. in Athens'''  The powerful body became an assembly open to all (male) citizens.

The city-states were remarkable because they adopted a form of democracy that inspired our Constitution:  citizens elected representatives who would then make decisions for everyone.  But there was only a legislature in Athens and no president or court system, so there was no separation of powers that is unique to our Constitution.  Also, not all Greek males in Athens were citizens.  The city-state of Athens had 225,000 residents at its peak, but only 30% of the males were citizens.  Males born to families with large incomes became citizens.  Still, Athens is considered to have invented "democracy", and its residents felt an allegiance to the State because of this.

The Greek city-states were remarkable because they adopted a form of democracy that inspired our Constitution:  citizens elected representatives who would then make decisions for everyone.  But there was only a legislature in Athens and no president or court system, so there was no separation of powers that is unique to our Constitution.  Also, not all Greek males in Athens were citizens.  The city-state of Athens had 225,000 residents at its peak, but only 30% of the males were citizens.  Males born to families with large incomes became citizens.  Still, Athens is considered to have invented "democracy", and its residents felt an allegiance to the State because of this.

Athens had a direct democracy:  every citizen (Athenian adult males) could propose laws and participate in their consideration and approval.  Nobles served as judges to interpret the law, but there was a right to appeal and citizens served as jurors for trials in court.

Athens had a direct democracy:  every citizen (Athenian adult males) could propose laws and participate in their consideration and approval.  Nobles served as judges to interpret the law, but there was a right to appeal and citizens served as jurors for trials in court.

! The Introduction to the Gospel of John in its original Greek<ref>[http://www.blueletterbible.org/tools/printerFriendly.cfm?b=Jhn&c=1&t=tr&x=8&y=9 Textus Receptus]</ref>

! The Introduction to the Gospel of John in its original Greek<ref>[http://www.blueletterbible.org/tools/printerFriendly.cfm?b=Jhn&c=1&t=tr&x=8&y=9 Textus Receptus]</ref>

!

!

! Translation (note how the English requires more letters)

! Translation (notice how the English requires more letters)

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| Ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος καὶ ὁ λόγος ἦν πρὸς τὸν θεόν καὶ θεὸς ἦν ὁ λόγος   

| Ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος καὶ ὁ λόγος ἦν πρὸς τὸν θεόν καὶ θεὸς ἦν ὁ λόγος   

What can we thank Greece for today?  How about this: the Greeks started the Olympics!

What can we thank Greece for today?  How about this: the Greeks started the Olympics!

We thank Ancient Greece for far more than that.  Our system of laws and government is partly based on the Greek example, and in particular the concept of democratic participation in government.  Trial by jury is from Greece, as is the concept of a defense attorney (Roman law lacked a defense attorney - note how Jesus did not have an attorney at His trial during the Passion).  Greece established democracy for the first time in history.  Our language, too, is due to the Greek adoption of an alphabet.  The Greeks invented the study of history, so this course is indebted to the Greeks!

We thank Ancient Greece for far more than that.  Our system of laws and government is partly based on the Greek example, and in particular the concept of democratic participation in government.  Trial by jury is from Greece, as is the concept of a defense attorney (Roman law lacked a defense attorney - notice how Jesus did not have an attorney at His trial during the Passion).  Greece established democracy for the first time in history.  Our language, too, is due to the Greek adoption of an alphabet.  The Greeks invented the study of history, so this course is indebted to the Greeks!

Ancient Greece had tremendous achievements in the fields of science, philosophy and art.  The concept of truth began to acquire meaning in ancient Greece, as did the concepts of freedom and knowledge.  The idea of moderation illustrated by the "Golden Mean": the whole is to the larger part as the larger part is to the smaller part, or in mathematical terms (a+b)/a = a/b. The design of ancient Greek buildings like the Parthenon<ref>A full-sized replica of the Parthenon sits in Nashville, Tennessee.</ref> (built in 438 B.C. to honor the goddess Athena) used the Golden Mean in its dimensions.  The Golden Mean also occurs in many living creatures and has fascinated mathematicians ever since; for those interested in math, the Fibonacci sequence is a manifestation of the golden mean.

Ancient Greece had tremendous achievements in the fields of science, philosophy and art.  The concept of truth began to acquire meaning in ancient Greece, as did the concepts of freedom and knowledge.  The idea of moderation illustrated by the "Golden Mean": the whole is to the larger part as the larger part is to the smaller part, or in mathematical terms (a+b)/a = a/b. The design of ancient Greek buildings like the Parthenon<ref>A full-sized replica of the Parthenon sits in Nashville, Tennessee.</ref> (built in 438 B.C. to honor the goddess Athena) used the Golden Mean in its dimensions.  The Golden Mean also occurs in many living creatures and has fascinated mathematicians ever since; for those interested in math, the Fibonacci sequence is a manifestation of the golden mean.

The Greek and Hebrew approaches to knowledge were very different.  The Greeks emphasized spatial relationships, benefiting from the discovery of geometry by the Greek Euclid.  The Hebrews rarely discussed spatial aspects of history in the Old Testament, and instead focused on their relationship with Yahweh, which has no spatial elements.  Note that the Hebrews were inspired by one God, while the Hellenistic Greeks worshiped many gods and permitted many religions including Cynicism, Epicureanism and Stoicism.

The Greek and Hebrew approaches to knowledge were very different.  The Greeks emphasized spatial relationships, benefiting from the discovery of geometry by the Greek Euclid.  The Hebrews rarely discussed spatial aspects of history in the Old Testament, and instead focused on their relationship with Yahweh, which has no spatial elements.  Notice that the Hebrews were inspired by one God, while the Hellenistic Greeks worshiped many gods and permitted many religions including Cynicism, Epicureanism and Stoicism.

Many credit the Greeks for "humanism", by which historians mean the Greek emphasis on reason, ethics and rational thinking rather than religion.  But the Greeks did not choose to reject religion the way that modern humanists do.  Instead, the Greeks advanced knowledge as best they could before the advent of Christianity.

Many credit the Greeks for "humanism", by which historians mean the Greek emphasis on reason, ethics and rational thinking rather than religion.  But the Greeks did not choose to reject religion the way that modern humanists do.  Instead, the Greeks advanced knowledge as best they could before the advent of Christianity.

The Aryans were nomadic people who migrated into India through the Kyber Pass around 1500 B.C.  The language in ancient Persia was Avestan and in Northern India it was Sanskrit.  All major European and Indian languages are considered related to the Aryan languages, but Hebrew and Arabic are not.

The Aryans were nomadic people who migrated into India through the Kyber Pass around 1500 B.C.  The language in ancient Persia was Avestan and in Northern India it was Sanskrit.  All major European and Indian languages are considered related to the Aryan languages, but Hebrew and Arabic are not.

:'''Fast-forward to the 20th century''': The Nazis, as ignorant as they were, used the term "Aryans" to refer to Nordic people, and as a result of the incorrect Nazi usage, the term "Aryan" today is misleadingly used to describe blond and blue-eyed people descended from Northern Europe rather than from the Persian region (the region between India and Europe, or Indo-European).  After Darwin's theory of evolution became popular in England and Germany around 1900, racists claimed that the Aryans (Nordics) were superior to everyone else.  One of the worst of these Darwinian racists was the Englishman Houston Stewart Chamberlain, who insisted that Aryans were responsible for all of human progress, and that Jewish people were somehow inferior because they did not descend from the Aryans (note, by the way, that Hebrew did not descend from the Aryan language).  

:'''Fast-forward to the 20th century''': The Nazis, as ignorant as they were, used the term "Aryans" to refer to Nordic people, and as a result of the incorrect Nazi usage, the term "Aryan" today is misleadingly used to describe blond and blue-eyed people descended from Northern Europe rather than from the Persian region (the region between India and Europe, or Indo-European).  After Darwin's theory of evolution became popular in England and Germany around 1900, racists claimed that the Aryans (Nordics) were superior to everyone else.  One of the worst of these Darwinian racists was the Englishman Houston Stewart Chamberlain, who insisted that Aryans were responsible for all of human progress, and that Jewish people were somehow inferior because they did not descend from the Aryans (notice, by the way, that Hebrew did not descend from the Aryan language).  

Let's return to the ancient world.  The glory days of the Persian empire were from 550 to 331 B.C., and were discussed in detail earlier in this lecture.  The Old Testament mentions Persia frequently during this time period.  When the Persians took over Babylon, Daniel served under Cyrus and Darius (who threw him into the lion's den).  The Persians are also seen in the Bible in the story of Esther, when King Xerxes I held what might be called a "Miss Persia" beauty contest.  Esther, a beautiful Jewish girl, won the contest and she went on to save the Hebrews with her remarkable courage.  It is the Book of Esther that first refers to the Hebrew people as "Jewish", and it was written around 300 B.C.

Let's return to the ancient world.  The glory days of the Persian empire were from 550 to 331 B.C., and were discussed in detail earlier in this lecture.  The Old Testament mentions Persia frequently during this time period.  When the Persians took over Babylon, Daniel served under Cyrus and Darius (who threw him into the lion's den).  The Persians are also seen in the Bible in the story of Esther, when King Xerxes I held what might be called a "Miss Persia" beauty contest.  Esther, a beautiful Jewish girl, won the contest and she went on to save the Hebrews with her remarkable courage.  It is the Book of Esther that first refers to the Hebrew people as "Jewish", and it was written around 300 B.C.