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Linguistics, which means the study of language, is a fascinating aspect of World history.  A language is essential to the progress and survival of a society - the better the language, the more successful the society becomes.  Cultures having only primitive languages could not survive against rival groups having more powerful languages.  Language expresses and communicates ideas, and facilitates the trade that brings wealth to a civilization.  Observe for yourself how difficult it is, if not impossible, to think about and remember an idea without a term to express it.   

Linguistics, which means the study of language, is a fascinating aspect of World history.  A language is essential to the progress and survival of a society - the better the language, the more successful the society becomes.  Cultures having only primitive languages could not survive against rival groups having more powerful languages.  Language expresses and communicates ideas, and facilitates the trade that brings wealth to a civilization.  Observe for yourself how difficult it is, if not impossible, to think about and remember an idea without a term to express it.   

All languages develop based on common and basic aspects of life, such as terms  needed to describe food, animals, daily activities and commerce or trade (like the word "coin").  But much more is needed in language in order to express the intangibles, such as religious concepts.  Christianity could not develop and spread without a language capable of communicating its concepts.  Had Christ come into this world in 2000 or 1000 B.C., would there have been a language powerful enough to express His ideas?  Probably not.  Notice that even Ancient Hebrew lacked vowels, and most non-Hebrew languages were very primitive.   

All languages develop based on common and basic aspects of life, such as terms  needed to describe food, animals, daily activities and commerce or trade (like the word "coin").  But much more is needed in language in order to express the intangibles, such as religious concepts.  Christianity could not develop and spread without a language capable of communicating its concepts.  Had Christ come into this world in 2000 or 1000 B.C., would there have been a language powerful enough to express His ideas?  Probably not.  Notice that Ancient Hebrew lacked vowels, and most non-Hebrew languages were very primitive.   

An example of a concept that Jesus needed to express was the "Holy Spirit."  Almost no language can convey the full meaning of this concept.  The Greek words "pneuma" (wind or breath) and "paraclete" (advocate or one who consoles) are what the Gospel of John uses, and those words capture the guiding, driving force of the Holy Spirit.  The English word "spirit" fails to convey the full meaning of the Greek.  Most languages in the world have smaller vocabularies than English, and thus have even greater difficulty capturing the essence of what we call the "Holy Spirit" and other key concepts of Christianity.

An example of a concept that Jesus needed to express was the "Holy Spirit."  Almost no language can convey the full meaning of this concept.  The Greek words "pneuma" (wind or breath) and "paraclete" (advocate or one who consoles) are what the Gospel of John uses, and those words capture the guiding, driving force of the Holy Spirit.  The English word "spirit" fails to convey the full meaning of the Greek.  Most languages in the world have smaller vocabularies than English, and thus have even greater difficulty capturing the essence of what we call the "Holy Spirit" and other key concepts of Christianity.

The beginning of the ancient or classical Greece (see map above) was 776 B.C.  The peak of ancient or classical Greece was 500-336 B.C. when Greece consisted of many small "city-states".  A city-state is a nation containing only one city.

The beginning of the ancient or classical Greece (see map above) was 776 B.C.  The peak of ancient or classical Greece was 500-336 B.C. when Greece consisted of many small "city-states".  A city-state is a nation containing only one city.

Why didn't classical Greece begin before 776 B.C.?  After all, Greeks migrated southward into the Greek peninsula as early as about 1600 B.C.  But from 1600 to 1100 B.C. was a period known as Mycenaean Greece, when progress was slow and few noteworthy advances were produced.  The period from 1100 to 800 B.C. was the "dark ages," during which there was little progress and from which little survived.  The momentous event that heralded the beginning of ancient or classical Greece was the first Olympic Games in 776 B.C.  This played a unifying role for the culture, and the Olympics were then held every four years for nearly 1000 years until A.D. 393, when they ended.  They were restarted in A.D. 1896, and again held every four years.  (The winter Olympics did not begin until A.D. 1924, in France.)

Why didn't classical Greece begin before 776 B.C.?  After all, Greeks migrated southward into the Greek peninsula as early as about 1600 B.C.  But from 1600 to 1100 B.C. was a period known as Mycenaean Greece, when progress was slow and few noteworthy advances were produced.  The period from 1100 to 800 B.C. was the "dark ages," during which there was little progress and from which little survived.  The momentous event that heralded the beginning of ancient or classical Greece was the first Olympic Games in 776 B.C.  This played a unifying role for the culture, and the Olympics were then held every four years for a millennium until A.D. 393, when they ended.  They were restarted in A.D. 1896, and held again every four years.  (The winter Olympics did not begin until A.D. 1924, in France.)

Greece thrived for hundreds of years, from 776 B.C. until Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C.  Afterward the term "Hellenistic Greece" is used to describe the region.  Greece's land extended far and wide during this period, even to Jerusalem.  Ultimately the Roman empire conquered Greece in 146 B.C.

Greece thrived for hundreds of years, from 776 B.C. until Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C.  Afterward the term "Hellenistic Greece" is used to describe the region.  Greece's land extended far and wide during this period, even to Jerusalem.  Ultimately the Roman empire conquered Greece in 146 B.C.

'''Socrates' greatest student was Plato (428-347 B.C.), who founded the Academy''', which became one of the greatest places of learning in all of history.  Born as a nobleman, Plato was fascinated with the power of reason and developed a philosophy based on reason rather than experience.  '''He felt the essence of the world was abstract universals or "forms" or "ideas", such as justice and truth and the Good'''.  Plato was particularly interested in physics and mathematics.  His writing style was in the form of dialogs.  Early Christians made use of Plato's work.

'''Socrates' greatest student was Plato (428-347 B.C.), who founded the Academy''', which became one of the greatest places of learning in all of history.  Born as a nobleman, Plato was fascinated with the power of reason and developed a philosophy based on reason rather than experience.  '''He felt the essence of the world was abstract universals or "forms" or "ideas", such as justice and truth and the Good'''.  Plato was particularly interested in physics and mathematics.  His writing style was in the form of dialogs.  Early Christians made use of Plato's work.

'''Plato's greatest writing was his book called "The Republic," which forms the foundation for the American republican system of government'''.  Under this system, the people typically do not vote directly on issues, but elect representatives who then cast hopefully more informed votes on legislation.  In the ideal state of government imagined by Plato, philosophers ruled the country.

'''Plato's greatest writing was his book called "The Republic," which forms the foundation for the American republican system of government'''.  Under this system, the people typically do not vote directly on issues, but elect representatives who then cast hopefully more informed votes on legislation.  Plato wanted government to be run by philosophers.

'''Plato's finest student was Aristotle, perhaps the greatest philosopher of all time.  Aristotle lived from 384 to 322 B.C.''', and wrote a treatise that is still taught in the finest university philosophy departments.  Aristotle came to the Academy when he was 17 and remained there until the death of Plato twenty years later.  '''But Aristotle's approach was the opposite of Plato's: Aristotle thought experience was the key to knowledge, and embarked on the massive task of observing and compiling as much information as possible'''.  In contrast to Plato's interest in physics and math, Aristotle was fascinated by biology and classified over 500 animal species.  He ultimately founded his own school, the Lyceum, and equipped it with specimens, libraries, maps and other accouterments found in modern universities.  Less impressive was how Aristotle defended the usefulness of slavery.

'''Plato's finest student was Aristotle, perhaps the greatest philosopher of all time.  Aristotle lived from 384 to 322 B.C.''', and wrote a treatise that is still taught in the finest university philosophy departments.  Aristotle came to the Academy when he was 17 and remained there until the death of Plato twenty years later.  '''But Aristotle's approach was the opposite of Plato's: Aristotle thought experience was the key to knowledge, and embarked on the massive task of observing and compiling as much information as possible'''.  In contrast to Plato's interest in physics and math, Aristotle was fascinated by biology and classified over 500 animal species.  He ultimately founded his own school, the Lyceum, and equipped it with specimens, libraries, maps and other accouterments found in modern universities.  Less impressive was how Aristotle defended the usefulness of slavery.

Ancient Greece contributed enormously to medicine.  The father of medicine was Hippocrates (460–377 B.C.), although some claim that medicine started even earlier in ancient India.  Hippocrates issued the "Hippocratic Oath" that has been required of medical students around the world as a condition of graduation.  It originally stated in part:  "I will follow that system of regimen which, according to my ability and judgment, I consider for the benefit of my patients, and abstain from whatever is deleterious and mischievous.  I will give no deadly medicine to any one if asked, nor suggest any such counsel; and in like manner I will not give to a woman a pessary to produce [[abortion]]."  People who profit from abortion today refuse to obey the Oath, and most medical schools have improperly omitted this key part of the Oath.

Ancient Greece contributed enormously to medicine.  The father of medicine was Hippocrates (460–377 B.C.), although some claim that medicine started even earlier in ancient India.  Hippocrates issued the "Hippocratic Oath" that has been required of medical students around the world as a condition of graduation.  It originally stated in part:  "I will follow that system of regimen which, according to my ability and judgment, I consider for the benefit of my patients, and abstain from whatever is deleterious and mischievous.  I will give no deadly medicine to any one if asked, nor suggest any such counsel; and in like manner I will not give to a woman a pessary to produce [[abortion]]."  People who profit from abortion today refuse to obey the Oath, and most medical schools have improperly omitted this key part of the Oath.

Archimedes (285 to 212 B.C.) lived in the Greek city-state of Syracuse and is considered as one of the finest mathematicians of all time.  He discovered "pi", the ratio between the circumference of a circle to its diameter.  He discovered the relationship between the surface and volume of a sphere and its circumscribing cylinder.  He discovered "Archimedes' principle" allegedly when he was sitting in a bathtub one day, recognizing that volume of a body can be measured by seeing how much the water rises when the body is submerged.  He supposedly ran into town naked from his bathtub declaring "eureka!", meaning "I have found it!"  Archimedes also invented military devices useful for keeping the Roman soldiers out, although eventually they conquered his city-state and senselessly killed him, an idiotic act of violence typical of the Romans.  The "Archimedes screw" is a very clever way to use a large screw surrounded by a pipe to remove water from the bottom of a boat or basement.

Archimedes (285 to 212 B.C.) lived in the Greek city-state of Syracuse and is considered to be one of the finest mathematicians of all time.  He discovered "pi", the ratio between the circumference of a circle to its diameter.  He discovered the relationship between the surface and volume of a sphere and its circumscribing cylinder.  He discovered "Archimedes' principle" allegedly when he was sitting in a bathtub one day, recognizing that volume of a body can be measured by seeing how much the water rises when the body is submerged.  He supposedly ran into town naked from his bathtub declaring "eureka!", meaning "I have found it!"  Archimedes also invented military devices useful for keeping the Roman soldiers out, although eventually Romans conquered his city-state and then senselessly killed him.  The "Archimedes screw" is a very clever way to use a large screw surrounded by a pipe to remove water from the bottom of a boat or basement.

   

   

Other mathematicians from the Greek empire are just as famous.  Euclid (325–265 B.C.) lived in Hellenistic Alexandria, Egypt, and invented geometry.  Pythagoras (582–507 B.C.) lived much earlier than Archimedes and Euclid, and was a philosopher, mathematician and teacher.  He is often credited with proving the Pythagorean Theorem for calculating the length of a hypotenuse in a right triangle, but actually the Mesopotamians discovered it first.  The Greek astronomer Aristarchus (310-230 B.C.) understood and taught that the earth revolved around the sun.  Greek poetry and drama was tremendous too.  

Other mathematicians from the Greek empire are just as famous.  Euclid (325–265 B.C.) lived in Hellenistic Alexandria (located in Egypt), and invented geometry.  Pythagoras (582–507 B.C.) lived much earlier than Archimedes and Euclid, and was a philosopher, mathematician and teacher.  He is often credited with proving the Pythagorean Theorem for calculating the length of a hypotenuse in a right triangle, but actually the Mesopotamians discovered it first.  The Greek astronomer Aristarchus (310-230 B.C.) understood and taught that the earth revolved around the sun.  Greek poetry and drama was tremendous too.  

Ancient Greece also produced a great orator and statesman, Demosthenes (384-322 B.C.).  As a young man, Demosthenes had very weak lungs and could not speak loudly or clearly.  However, he did not let this defeat him; to improve his voice, Demosthenes would go to the ocean, fill his mouth with pebbles, and practice speaking loudly enough for his voice to be heard over the waves!  He went on to give powerful political speeches -- known as the "Phillipics" -- against Philip II of Macedon, once causing the crowd to shout, "Let us take up arms and march!"  But in 338 B.C. Philip of Macedon completely conquered the Greeks at the battle of Chaeronea.  Demosthenes' life later ended in failure when an Athenian revolt against Macedon was unsuccessful.

Ancient Greece also produced a great orator and statesman, Demosthenes (384-322 B.C.).  As a young man, Demosthenes had very weak lungs and could not speak loudly or clearly.  However, he did not let this defeat him; to improve his voice, Demosthenes would go to the ocean, fill his mouth with pebbles, and practice speaking loudly enough for his voice to be heard over the waves!  He went on to give powerful political speeches -- known as the "Phillipics" -- against Philip II of Macedon, once causing the crowd to shout, "Let us take up arms and march!"  But in 338 B.C. Philip of Macedon completely conquered the Greeks at the battle of Chaeronea.  Demosthenes' life later ended in failure when an Athenian revolt against Macedon was unsuccessful.

=== Did Jesus Preach in Greek? ===

=== Did Jesus Preach in Greek? ===

The traditional view is that Jesus and the Apostles spoke in Aramaic, the colloquial language of that region and time.  Many of Jesus' sayings are quoted directly in Aramaic, including Talitha cum, which means, "Little girl, get up!" (Mark 5:41). Also, Abba ("Father"; Mark 14:36; Gal.4:6; Rom.8:15); Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani ("My God, my God, why have you forsaken me"; Mark 15:34); Cephas ("Peter"; John 1:42); Mammon ("Wealth"; Matt.6:24, RSV); Raca ("Fool"; Matt. 5:22, RSV).  Linguists can even pinpoint Jesus' dialect to be western Aramaic associated with Galilee, rather than the Aramaic dialect spoken in Jerusalem.  But notice how these Aramaic sayings were not part of His teachings, but were less formal, or names, or even emotional utterances.

The traditional view is that Jesus and the Apostles spoke in Aramaic, the colloquial language of that region and time.  Many of Jesus' sayings are quoted directly in Aramaic, including Talitha cum, which means, "Little girl, get up!" (Mark 5:41). Also, Abba ("Father"; Mark 14:36; Gal.4:6; Rom.8:15); Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani ("My God, my God, why have you forsaken me"; Mark 15:34); Cephas ("Peter"; John 1:42); Mammon ("Wealth"; Matt.6:24, RSV); Raca ("Fool"; Matt. 5:22, RSV).  Linguists can even pinpoint Jesus' dialect to be western Aramaic associated with Galilee, rather than the Aramaic dialect spoken in Jerusalem.  But notice how these Aramaic sayings were not part of His teachings, but were less formal emotional utterances (or a name).

For teaching purposes, the powerful Greek language would have been useful.  Greek was in common use by Jewish people in Palestine, thanks in part to the conquest by Alexander the Great.  Greek was even widely used in Jewish ossuaries to bury the dead.  Commerce took place often in Greek, and Jesus had been in business as a carpenter.  He surely knew the language.  Several of the key terms, such as Jesus' criticism of the Pharisees as "hypocrites", is derived directly from Greek without any comparable term in Aramaic or Hebrew.  Several of the Apostles had Greek names (e.g., Andrew and Philip), but others, like John, Bartholomew, Matthew, and Thomas, had Aramaic or Hebrew names. There has been no discovered book in the New Testament written in Aramaic or Hebrew that predates the Greek versions. The Gospel of John even seems to take advantage of the Greek "Socratic method" in repeating questions and then providing the important information as answers to the questions.<ref>For example, John 3:4 states, “How can a man be born again?  Is it even possible?”  (Answer, yes, by the Spirit and water.  John 3:5-8).</ref>  One website provides an interesting presentation of the view that Jesus taught in Greek.<ref>See, e.g., http://www.triumphpro.com/did_jesus_and_the_apostles_speak_greek.htm</ref>

For teaching purposes, the powerful Greek language would have been useful.  Greek was in common use by Jewish people in Palestine, thanks in part to the conquest by Alexander the Great.  Greek was even widely used in Jewish ossuaries to bury the dead.  Commerce took place often in Greek, and Jesus had been in business as a carpenter.  He surely knew the language.  Several of the key terms, such as Jesus' criticism of the Pharisees as "hypocrites", is derived directly from Greek without any comparable term in Aramaic or Hebrew.  Several of the Apostles had Greek names (e.g., Andrew and Philip), but others, like John, Bartholomew, Matthew, and Thomas, had Aramaic or Hebrew names. There has been no discovered book in the New Testament written in Aramaic or Hebrew that predates the Greek versions. The Gospel of John even seems to take advantage of the Greek "Socratic method" in repeating questions and then providing the important information as answers to the questions.<ref>For example, John 3:4 states, “How can a man be born again?  Is it even possible?”  (Answer, yes, by the Spirit and water.  John 3:5-8).</ref>

Here is a comparison of Greek and English:

Here is a comparison of Greek and English:

=== Alexander the Great ===

=== Alexander the Great ===

Alexander the Great had benefited from homeschooling while growing up:  Philip II arranged for Aristotle to tutor him, and as a result Alexander became the greatest military leader of all time. We could say that Alexander was homeschooled by this extraordinary tutor! '''Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.), as he is known, came closer to conquering the entire world than anyone else before or since'''.  He mapped out his battles with logical precision and never lost a single one.  He went to sleep at night with Aristotle's marked-up copy of the ''Iliad'', the great work of Greek literature, under his pillow.  He treated his conquered peoples better than Aristotle would have, because Aristotle advised Alexander to treat them like animals.   

Alexander the Great had benefited from homeschooling while growing up:  Philip II arranged for Aristotle to tutor him, and as a result Alexander became the greatest military leader of all time.  '''Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.), as he is known, came closer to conquering the entire world than anyone else before or since'''.  He mapped out his battles with logical precision and never lost a single one.  He went to sleep at night with Aristotle's marked-up copy of the ''Iliad'', the great work of Greek literature, under his pillow.  He treated his conquered peoples better than Aristotle would have, because Aristotle advised Alexander to treat them like animals.   

Alexander the Great personally traveled over 22,000 miles with his troops and often knew the foreign terrain better than his enemies who lived there.  He defeated the most feared empires the world had known and expanded the Hellenistic empire from Persia to Egypt to India, before dying from swamp fever (perhaps malaria) at the young age of 33.  The world would never be the same again.

Alexander the Great personally traveled over 22,000 miles with his troops and often knew the foreign terrain better than his enemies who lived there.  He defeated the most feared empires the world had known and expanded the Hellenistic empire from Persia to Egypt to India, before dying from swamp fever (perhaps malaria) at the young age of 33.  The world would never be the same again.

In a mere four years (334-331 B.C.), Alexander conquered the greatest empire in the history of the world so far:  the Persian empire led by Persian king Darius III.  The Persian armies were far superior to Alexander's army, but Alexander was a brilliant, ferocious and unrelenting military leader.  King Darius III even offered half of the Persian empire and even his daughter's hand in marriage to Alexander in exchange for peace.  Alexander refused and proceeded to completely destroy the Persian army -- capturing every one of its empire's vast treasures!  Darius was then assassinated by one of his own guards, and Alexander became ruler of Persia.  Alexander did not stop there.

In a mere four years (334-331 B.C.), Alexander conquered the greatest empire in the history of the world until then:  the Persian empire led by Persian king Darius III.  The Persian armies were far superior to Alexander's army, but Alexander was a brilliant, ferocious and unrelenting military leader.  King Darius III offered half of the Persian empire and even his daughter's hand in marriage to Alexander in exchange for peace.  Alexander refused and proceeded to completely destroy the Persian army -- capturing every one of its empire's vast treasures!  Darius was then assassinated by one of his own guards, and Alexander became ruler of Persia.  Alexander did not stop there.

There are numerous fascinating stories told about Alexander the Great.  Many consider him to have been the finest military leader ever.  Illustrating Alexander's approach, legend tells the story of how Alexander confronted a huge "Gordian knot," a massive tangle of rope wrapped too tightly for anyone to unravel.  Alexander and was told that whoever could unravel the knot would rule the world.  Alexander supposedly drew his sword and sliced the Gordian knot in half, and proceeded on his way.   

There are numerous fascinating stories told about Alexander the Great.  Many consider him to have been the finest military leader ever.  Illustrating Alexander's approach, legend tells the story of how Alexander confronted a huge "Gordian knot," a massive tangle of rope wrapped too tightly for anyone to unravel.  Alexander and was told that whoever could unravel the knot would rule the world.  Alexander supposedly drew his sword and sliced the Gordian knot in half, and proceeded on his way.   

He surrounded himself with a staff of secretaries, philosophers and scientists, yet would also engage in drunken brawls to the point where he accidentally killed a friend who had once saved his life.  Alexander enjoyed battle himself, and would often be wounded by an enemy while leading his own soldiers.  In one conflict, Alexander even used underwater divers to defeat the enemy.  Alexander never lost a single battle, and seemed to have unlimited energy, motivation, and determination.  His work ethic was an inspiration to the world.  His vast influence but premature death at 33 has led to comparisons with Jesus Christ, though obviously they were very different from each other!  Alexander lacked any disciples to carry on after his death, unlike Jesus.

He surrounded himself with a staff of secretaries, philosophers and scientists, yet would also engage in drunken brawls to the point where he accidentally killed a friend who had once saved his life.  Alexander enjoyed battle himself, and would often be wounded by an enemy while leading his own soldiers.  In one conflict, Alexander even used underwater divers to defeat the enemy.  Alexander never lost a single battle, and seemed to have unlimited energy, motivation, and determination.  His work ethic was an inspiration to the world.  His vast influence but premature death at 33 has led to comparisons with Jesus Christ, though obviously they were very different from each other!  And unlike Jesus, Alexander lacked any disciples to carry on after his death.

Alexander's death from a fever in his capital city of Babylon in 323 B.C. marked the end of his empire, but the beginning of the great Hellenistic influence.  Seeds of Greek knowledge had been planted all around the world and were beginning to spring up everywhere.  For centuries these seeds grew and influenced cultures from Persia to Egypt to Rome.

Alexander's death from a fever in his capital city of Babylon in 323 B.C. marked the end of his empire, but the beginning of the great Hellenistic influence.  Seeds of Greek knowledge had been planted all around the world and were beginning to spring up everywhere.  For centuries these seeds grew and influenced cultures from Persia to Egypt to Rome.

Alexander's empire was too vast to survive his death, and his generals murdered the remaining members of his family.  Athens and Sparta again became independent city-states until the Roman empire conquered them.  However, what mattered was that the many thousands of Greeks who traveled with Alexander during his conquests brought their knowledge and culture to all corners of the ancient world except China.  The great ancient city of Alexandria, Egypt, showed its tribute to him by using his name.  Greek-speaking kingdoms had been established in Egypt, Syria and Iran, and the language became popular among the educated for trade in Palestine.  The post-Alexander era is known as the Hellenistic Age (232-146 B.C.)

Alexander's empire was too vast to survive his death, and his generals murdered the remaining members of his family.  But many thousands of Greeks who traveled with Alexander during his conquests brought their knowledge and culture to all corners of the ancient world except China.  The great ancient city of Alexandria, Egypt, showed its tribute to him by using his name.  Athens and Sparta again became independent city-states until the Roman empire conquered them.  Greek-speaking kingdoms were established in Egypt, Syria and Iran, and the Greek language became popular among the educated for trade in Palestine.  The post-Alexander era is known as the Hellenistic Age (232-146 B.C.)

Christianity used the Greek language to evangelize the Hellenistic world in the first century A.D.  The Greek language, culture, and advances in knowledge had prepared people well for Christianity to take root.

Christianity used the Greek language to evangelize the Hellenistic world in the first century A.D.  The Greek language, culture, and advances in knowledge had prepared people well for Christianity.

=== Greek Contributions ===

=== Greek Contributions ===

What can we thank Greece for today?  How about this: the Greeks started the Olympics!

What can we thank Greece for today?  How about this: the Greeks started the Olympics!

We thank Ancient Greece for far more than that.  Our system of laws and government is partly based on the Greek example, and in particular the concept of democratic participation in government.  Trial by jury is from Greece, as is the concept of a defense attorney (Roman law lacked a defense attorney - notice how Jesus did not have an attorney at His trial during the Passion).  Greece established democracy for the first time in history.  Our language, too, is due to the Greek adoption of an alphabet.  The Greeks invented the study of history, so this course is indebted to the Greeks!

We thank Ancient Greece for far more than that.  Our system of laws and government is based partly on the Greek example, especially the concept of democratic participation in government.  Trial by jury is from Greece, as is the concept of a defense attorney (Roman law lacked a defense attorney - notice how Jesus did not have an attorney at His trial during the Passion).  Greece established democracy for the first time in history.  Our language, too, is due to the Greek adoption of an alphabet.  The Greeks invented the study of history, so this course is indebted to the Greeks!

Ancient Greece had tremendous achievements in the fields of science, philosophy and art.  The concept of truth began to acquire meaning in ancient Greece, as did the concepts of freedom and knowledge.  The idea of moderation illustrated by the "Golden Mean": the whole is to the larger part as the larger part is to the smaller part, or in mathematical terms (a+b)/a = a/b. The design of ancient Greek buildings like the Parthenon<ref>A full-sized replica of the Parthenon sits in Nashville, Tennessee.</ref> (built in 438 B.C. to honor the goddess Athena) used the Golden Mean in its dimensions.  The Golden Mean also occurs in many living creatures and has fascinated mathematicians ever since; for those interested in math, the Fibonacci sequence is a manifestation of the golden mean.

Ancient Greece had tremendous achievements in the fields of science, philosophy and art.  The concept of truth began to acquire meaning in ancient Greece, as did the concepts of freedom and knowledge.  The idea of moderation illustrated by the "Golden Mean": the whole is to the larger part as the larger part is to the smaller part, or in mathematical terms (a+b)/a = a/b = 1.618. The design of ancient Greek buildings like the Parthenon<ref>A full-sized replica of the Parthenon sits in Nashville, Tennessee.</ref> (built in 438 B.C. to honor the goddess Athena) used the Golden Mean in its dimensions.  The Golden Mean also occurs in many living creatures and has fascinated mathematicians ever since; for those interested in math, the Fibonacci sequence is a manifestation of the golden mean.

The Greek and Hebrew approaches to knowledge were very different.  The Greeks emphasized spatial relationships, benefiting from the discovery of geometry by the Greek Euclid.  The Hebrews rarely discussed spatial aspects of history in the Old Testament, and instead focused on their relationship with Yahweh, which has no spatial elements.  Notice that the Hebrews were inspired by one God, while the Hellenistic Greeks worshiped many gods and permitted many religions including Cynicism, Epicureanism and Stoicism.

The Greek and Hebrew approaches to knowledge were very different.  The Greeks emphasized spatial relationships, benefiting from the discovery of geometry by the Greek Euclid.  The Hebrews rarely discussed spatial aspects of history in the Old Testament, and instead focused on their relationship with Yahweh, which has no spatial elements.  Notice that the Hebrews were inspired by one God, while the Hellenistic Greeks worshiped many gods and permitted many religions including Cynicism, Epicureanism and Stoicism.

=== The Hittites ===

=== The Hittites ===

The Hittites were an ancient people in the Middle East, described in the Old Testament as having descended from Noah's great-grandson Heth (descended from Ham).

The Hittites were an ancient people in the Middle East, described in the Old Testament as having descended from Noah's son Ham, through his great-grandson Heth.

In 1650 B.C., the Hittites were able to gain control of most of Mesopotamia largely because of their advanced warfare, including horse-drawn chariots.  Under their rule, life in the Babylonian empire did not flourish artistically or culturally as it did under others' rule.

In 1650 B.C., the Hittites were able to gain control of most of Mesopotamia largely because of their advanced warfare, including horse-drawn chariots.  Under their rule, life in the Babylonian empire did not flourish artistically or culturally as it did under others' rule.

The Chaldeans seized the Assyrian capital, Ninevah (from the story of Jonah), in 612 B.C., and destroyed it.  They soon conquered all of Mesopotamia, as well as Judea and Syria.  Although the Chaldeans remained in power for only fifty years, they were responsible for founding what is known as the "Neo-Babylonian empire."  Elaborate and beautiful palaces and buildings were constructed by the Chaldeans, including the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon.

The Chaldeans seized the Assyrian capital, Ninevah (from the story of Jonah), in 612 B.C., and destroyed it.  They soon conquered all of Mesopotamia, as well as Judea and Syria.  Although the Chaldeans remained in power for only fifty years, they were responsible for founding what is known as the "Neo-Babylonian empire."  Elaborate and beautiful palaces and buildings were constructed by the Chaldeans, including the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon.

The Chaldeans' short reign is chronicled in the biblical Book of Daniel.  As a teenager, Daniel was captured by the Chaldean army during its first attack on Jerusalem.  While Daniel served under Nebuchadnezzar, one of only a few Chaldean kings, Daniel interpreted dreams, witnessed the miraculous survival of Shadrach, Meschach and Aben-nego in the fiery furnace, and accurately predicted Nebuchadnezza's downfall.  Under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar's son, Belshazzar, Daniel witnessed the writing on the wall, which he interpreted as a sign of Belshazzar's imminent downfall.  The very next day, the Persians invaded, killed Belshazzar, and took over the Babylonian empire.

The Chaldeans' short reign is chronicled in the biblical Book of Daniel.  As a teenager, Daniel was captured by the Chaldean army during its first attack on Jerusalem.  While Daniel served under Nebuchadnezzar, one of only a few Chaldean kings, Daniel interpreted dreams, witnessed the miraculous survival of Shadrach, Meschach and Abednego in the fiery furnace, and accurately predicted Nebuchadnezza's downfall.  Under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar's son, Belshazzar, Daniel witnessed the writing on the wall, which he interpreted as a sign of Belshazzar's imminent downfall.  The very next day, the Persians invaded, killed Belshazzar, and took over the Babylonian empire.

=== Persia ===

=== Persia ===

Persia was the "Land of the Aryans,"<ref>The word "Aryan" means "the noble"; the "Aryans" were "the noble ones."</ref> and in 1935 the name for the nation of Persia was changed to Iran.  Even now oriental rugs from Iran are called "Persian rugs."  These rugs are considered the best in the world and were banned as imports for a long time after Iranian students took Americans hostage in 1980.

Persia was the "Land of the Aryans,"<ref>The word "Aryan" means "the noble"; the "Aryans" were "the noble ones."</ref> and in 1935 the name for the nation of Persia was changed to Iran.  Even now oriental rugs from Iran are called "Persian rugs."  These rugs are considered the best in the world and were banned as imports after Iranian students took Americans hostage in 1980.

The Aryans were nomadic people who migrated into India through the Kyber Pass around 1500 B.C.  The language in ancient Persia was Avestan and in Northern India it was Sanskrit.  All major European and Indian languages are considered related to the Aryan languages, but Hebrew and Arabic are not.

The Aryans were nomadic people who migrated into India through the Kyber Pass around 1500 B.C.  The language in ancient Persia was Avestan and in Northern India it was Sanskrit.  All major European and Indian languages are considered related to the Aryan languages, but Hebrew and Arabic are not.

:'''Fast-forward to the 20th century''': The Nazis, as ignorant as they were, used the term "Aryans" to refer to Nordic people, and as a result of the incorrect Nazi usage, the term "Aryan" today is misleadingly used to describe blond and blue-eyed people descended from Northern Europe rather than from the Persian region (the region between India and Europe, or Indo-European).  After Darwin's theory of evolution became popular in England and Germany around 1900, racists claimed that the Aryans (Nordics) were superior to everyone else.  One of the worst of these Darwinian racists was the Englishman Houston Stewart Chamberlain, who insisted that Aryans were responsible for all of human progress, and that Jewish people were somehow inferior because they did not descend from the Aryans (notice, by the way, that Hebrew did not descend from the Aryan language).  

:'''Fast-forward to the 20th century''': The Nazis, as ignorant as they were, used the term "Aryans" to refer to Nordic people, and as a result of the incorrect Nazi usage, the term "Aryan" today is misleadingly used to describe blond and blue-eyed people descended from Northern Europe rather than from the Persian region (the region between India and Europe, or Indo-European).  After Darwin's theory of evolution became popular in England and Germany around 1900, racists claimed that the Aryans (Nordics) were superior to everyone else.  One of the worst of these Darwinian racists was the Englishman Houston Stewart Chamberlain, who insisted that Aryans were responsible for all of human progress, and that Jewish people were somehow inferior because they did not descend from the Aryans (Hebrew developed independent of the Aryan language).  

Let's return to the ancient world.  The glory days of the Persian empire were from 550 to 331 B.C., and were discussed in detail earlier in this lecture.  The Old Testament mentions Persia frequently during this time period.  When the Persians took over Babylon, Daniel served under Cyrus and Darius (who threw him into the lion's den).  The Persians are also seen in the Bible in the story of Esther, when King Xerxes I held what might be called a "Miss Persia" beauty contest.  Esther, a beautiful Jewish girl, won the contest and she went on to save the Hebrews with her remarkable courage.  It is the Book of Esther that first refers to the Hebrew people as "Jewish", and it was written around 300 B.C.

Let's return to the ancient world.  The glory days of the Persian empire were from 550 to 331 B.C., and were discussed in detail earlier in this lecture.  The Old Testament mentions Persia frequently during this time period.  When the Persians took over Babylon, Daniel served under Cyrus and Darius (who threw him into the lion's den).  The Persians are also seen in the Bible in the story of Esther, when King Xerxes I held what might be called a "Miss Persia" beauty contest.  Esther, a beautiful Jewish girl, won the contest and she went on to save the Hebrews with her remarkable courage.  It is the Book of Esther that first refers to the Hebrew people as "Jewish", and it was written around 300 B.C.

The Persians controlled a vast amount of territory, including most of the Middle East, Turkey and a portion of Northern Africa -- primarily under Cyrus the Great.  Accordingly, the Persian empire was one of the first great empires of the world.  They were unstoppable and greatly feared until Alexander the Great conquered them, and far more.

The Persians controlled a vast amount of territory, including most of the Middle East, Turkey and a portion of Northern Africa -- primarily under Cyrus the Great.  Accordingly, the Persian empire was one of the first great empires of the world.  They were unstoppable and greatly feared until Alexander the Great conquered them.

After Alexander the Great died, the Parthians (based in modern-day Iran) tried unsuccessfully to reestablish the Persian empire.  But the past greatness of the Persian empire was never achieved again.  They could not withstand the Roman army, which conquered it in A.D. 226.   

After Alexander the Great died, the Parthians (based in modern-day Iran) tried unsuccessfully to reestablish the Persian empire.  But the past greatness of the Persian empire was never achieved again.  They could not withstand the Roman army, which conquered it in A.D. 226.