Changes

The origin of Chinese civilization is shrouded in mythology. Documented history begins with the [[Shang dynasty]], founded in 1600 BC. China has long been the most populous country in the world. It's warring states were united into a single nation by Qin Shi Huang in 221 BC. For the next two thousand years, China was ruled by a series of imperial dynasties who followed the principles of [[Confucianism]]. Officials were selected by an examination system which tested knowledge of classic works of literature. The Qing (1644-1911), the last of these dynasties, was founded by the Manchu, a barbarian people from the northeast. In 1949, a communist state was established. During the [[Great Leap Forward]] (1958-1961), the communists starved the nation's peasants to maximize rice exports. The money raised was used to build a nuclear bomb, which was tested in 1964. Market-oriented reforms have allowed the country to experience rapid economic growth since 1978. However, the Communist Party maintains a monopoly on political power. In 1989, the army killed thousands of anti-Communist demonstrators in the Tiananmen Square Massacre. China now has the world's second largest economy, surpassing Japan in 2010.

The origin of Chinese civilization is shrouded in mythology and conflicting tales. Documented history begins with the [[Shang dynasty]], founded in 1600 BC. China has long been the most populous country in the world. It's warring states were united into a single nation by Qin Shi Huang in 221 BC. For the next two thousand years, the country was ruled by a series of imperial dynasties who followed the principles of [[Confucianism]]. Officials were selected by an examination system which tested knowledge of classic works of literature. The Qing (1644-1911), the last of these dynasties, was founded by the Manchu, a barbarian people from the northeast.

 

Christian missionary publications introduced reformist ideas in the late 19th century, culminating in the Chinese Revolution of 1911. The May Fourth Movement of the 1920s featured language reform, a campaign against footbinding and other abusive practices toward women, and a reverent attitude toward "science." During World War II, China was occupied by Japan. After the war, the country was ensnared in [[Cold War]] rivalries. Soviet-backed communists led by [[Mao Zedong]] defeated the U.S. backed Nationalists in 1949 and established the people republic. Although at this point impoverished by many years of war and upheaval, China entered the [[Korean War]] (1950-1953) with Soviet backing. Loses were heavy, but U.S. forces did retreat before the Chinese offensive. During the [[Great Leap Forward]] (1958-1961), the communists starved the nation's peasants to maximize rice exports. The money raised was used to build a nuclear bomb, which was tested in 1964.

 

Market-oriented reforms have allowed the country to experience rapid economic growth since 1978. China's economy is now has the world's second largest economy, surpassing that of Japan in 2010. However, the Communist Party maintains a monopoly on political power. In 1989, the army killed thousands of anti-Communist demonstrators in the Tiananmen Square Massacre.

[[File:China1.jpg|thumb|200px]]

[[File:China1.jpg|thumb|200px]]

{{History of China}}  

{{History of China}}  

The Ming period is the only era of later imperial history during which all of China was ruled by a native, or Han dynasty. The success of the Chinese in regaining control over their own government is an important event in history, and the Ming dynasty thus has been regarded, both in Ming times and even more so in the 21st century, as an era of Chinese resurgence.

The Ming period is the only era of later imperial history during which all of China was ruled by a native, or Han dynasty. The success of the Chinese in regaining control over their own government is an important event in history, and the Ming dynasty thus has been regarded, both in Ming times and even more so in the 21st century, as an era of Chinese resurgence.

[[Image:16th century East Asia.png|thumb|310px]]

[[Image:16th century East Asia.png|thumb|A map of Asia during the Ming dynasty]]

All the counties in China had a county government, a Confucian school, and the standard Chinese family system. Typically the dominant local elite comprised high status families comprised of the gentry owners and managers of land and of other forms of wealth, as well as smaller groups that were subject to elite domination and protection. Much attention was paid to genealogy to prove that high status was inherited from generations back.  Substantial land holdings were directly managed by the owning families in the early Ming period, but toward the end of the era marketing and ownership were depersonalized by the increased circulation of silver as money, and estate management gravitated into the hands of hired bailiffs. Together with  the departure of the most talented youth into the imperial service, the result was direct contacts between the elite and subject groups were disrupted, and romantic images of country life disappeared from the literature. In villages across China elite families participated in the life of the empire by sending their sons into the very high status imperial civil service. Most of the successful sons had a common education in the county and prefecture schools, had been recruited by competitive examination, and were posted to offices that might be anywhere in the empire, including the imperial capital. At first the recommendation of an elite local sponsor was important; increasing the imperial government relied more on merit exams, and thus entry into the national ruling class became more difficult. Downward social mobility into the peasantry was possible for less successful sons; upward mobility from the peasant class was unheard of.<ref>Dardess, ''A Ming Society'' (1996)</ref>

All the counties in China had a county government, a Confucian school, and the standard Chinese family system. Typically the dominant local elite comprised high status families comprised of the gentry owners and managers of land and of other forms of wealth, as well as smaller groups that were subject to elite domination and protection. Much attention was paid to genealogy to prove that high status was inherited from generations back.  Substantial land holdings were directly managed by the owning families in the early Ming period, but toward the end of the era marketing and ownership were depersonalized by the increased circulation of silver as money, and estate management gravitated into the hands of hired bailiffs. Together with  the departure of the most talented youth into the imperial service, the result was direct contacts between the elite and subject groups were disrupted, and romantic images of country life disappeared from the literature. In villages across China elite families participated in the life of the empire by sending their sons into the very high status imperial civil service. Most of the successful sons had a common education in the county and prefecture schools, had been recruited by competitive examination, and were posted to offices that might be anywhere in the empire, including the imperial capital. At first the recommendation of an elite local sponsor was important; increasing the imperial government relied more on merit exams, and thus entry into the national ruling class became more difficult. Downward social mobility into the peasantry was possible for less successful sons; upward mobility from the peasant class was unheard of.<ref>Dardess, ''A Ming Society'' (1996)</ref>

==Qing dynasty: 1644-1911==

==Qing dynasty: 1644-1911==

Chinese had an advanced artistic culture and well-developed science and technology. However, its science and technology stood still after 1700 and in the 21st century very little survives outside museums and remote villages, except in for the ever-popular forms of traditional medicine like acupuncture.  

Chinese had an advanced artistic culture and well-developed science and technology. However, its science and technology stood still after 1700 and in the 21st century very little survives outside museums and remote villages, except in for the ever-popular forms of traditional medicine like acupuncture.  

In the late Qing era (19th and early 20th centuries), the country was beset by large-scale civil wars, major famines, military defeats by Britain and Japan, regional control by powerful warlords and foreign intervention such as the [[Boxer Rebellion]] of 1900.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the country was beset by large-scale civil wars, major famines, military defeats by Britain and Japan, regional control by powerful warlords and foreign intervention such as the [[Boxer Rebellion]] of 1900. In the 1860s, electrotype technology was applied to allow newspapers in the Chinese language to be mass produced and widely circulated. Christian missionaries were at the forefront in taking advantage of this technology. The reformers of the 1890s were educated concerning modern approaches and ideologies by their publications, particularly ''Wanguo Gongbao'' (A Review of the Times).

===Reforms 1901-1908===

===Reforms 1901-1908===

The Boxer Rebellion was a humiliating fiasco for China; the Qing rulers proved visibly incompetent and lost prestige irreparably, while the foreign powers gained greater influence in Chinese affairs. The humiliation stimulated a second reform movement--this time sanctioned by the [[Empress Dowager Cixi]]. From 1901 to 1908, the dynasty announced a series of educational, military, and administrative reforms, many reminiscent of the "one hundreds days" of 1898. In 1905 the examination system itself was abolished and the entire Confucian tradition of merit entry into the elite collapsed. The abolition of the traditional civil service examination was itself a revolution of immense significance. After many centuries, the scholar's mind began to be liberated from the shackles of classical studies, and social mobility no longer depended chiefly on the writing of stereotyped and flowery prose.

The humiliation of the Boxer Rebellion, stimulated a second reform movement--this time sanctioned by the Empress Dowager [[Cixi]]. From 1901 to 1908, the dynasty announced a series of educational, military, and administrative reforms, many reminiscent of the "one hundreds days" of 1898. The imperial examinations of 1902 and 1904 included questions on the politics, science and technology of all countries, requiring some 50,000 students to study such subjects, most of whom would not otherwise be interested.<ref>Iwo Amelung, "[http://proj3.sinica.edu.tw/~icosas/download/ScholarSummary/278.pdf The Examination System and the Dissemination of Western Knowledge during the Late Qing]"</ref> Unfortunately, the examination system was abolished in 1905.

New ministries were created in Beijing and revised law codes were drafted. Work began on a national budget--the national government had no idea how much taxes were collected in its name and spent by regional officials.  

New ministries were created in Beijing and revised law codes were drafted. Work began on a national budget--the national government had no idea how much taxes were collected in its name and spent by regional officials.  

New armies were raised and trained in European (and Japanese) fashion and plans for a national army were laid. The creation of the "new army" reflected rising esteem for the military profession and the emergence of a new national elite that dominated China for much of the 20th century. More officers and men were now literate, while patriotism and better pay served as an inducement for service.  

New armies were raised and trained in European (and Japanese) fashion and plans for a national army were laid. The creation of the "new army" reflected rising esteem for the military profession and the emergence of a new national elite that dominated China for much of the 20th century. More officers and men were now literate, while patriotism and better pay served as an inducement for service.  

The movement for constitutionalism gathered momentum following the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, for Japan's victory signaled the triumph of constitutionalism over absolutism. Under pressure from gentry and student groups, the Qing court in 1908 issued plans for the inauguration of consultative provincial assemblies in 1909, a consultative national assembly in 1910, and both a constitution and a parliament in 1917. The consultative assemblies were to play a pivotal role in the unfolding events, politicizing the provincial gentry and providing them with new leverage with which to protect their interests.

The movement for constitutionalism gathered momentum following Japan's victory over Russia in 1905. In 1908, the court in 1908 issued plans for democratization: Consultative provincial assemblies by 1909, a consultative national assembly by 1910, and both a constitution and a parliament by 1917. Cixi's death in 1908 left the dynasty practically leaderless. The new emperor was a child, the regent incompetent, and the army leaders remained loyal to [[Yuan Shikai]], a Cixi favorite dismissed in 1909.  

===Revolution planned===

===Revolution planned===

Ironically, the measures designed to preserve the Qing dynasty hastened its death, for the nationalistic and modernizing impulses generated or nurtured by the reforms brought a greater awareness of the Qing government's extreme backwardness. Modernizing forces emerged as business, students, women, soldiers, and overseas Chinese became mobilized and demanded change. Government-sponsored education in Japan, available to both civilian and military students, exposed Chinese youths to revolutionary ideas produced by political exiles and inspired by the West. Anti-Manchu revolutionary groups were formed in the Yangtze cities by 1903, and those in Tokyo banded together to form the "Revolutionary Alliance" in 1905, led by [[Sun Yat-sen]].

While the reformers of the 1890s sought to modernize China by working within the dynasty, the following generation was fed up with the Qing. It was the age of racism, and many Chinese were influenced by anti-Manchu racial theories.<ref>Ishikawa Yoshihiro, "[http://chinajapan.org/articles/15/15ishikawa7-26.pdf Anti-Manchu racism and the rise of anthropology in early 20th century China]"</ref> The old crimes of the Manchu, such as the Yangzhou Massacre of 1645, were dug up and used against them. Anti-Manchu revolutionary groups were formed in the Yangtze cities by 1903, and those in Tokyo banded together to form the "Revolutionary Alliance" in 1905, led by [[Sun Yat-sen]]. By 1910, even Liang Qichao, the most prominent Chinese intellectual at the time and once a prominent advocate of constitutional monarchy, had joined Sun as a revolutionary. 

==Republic: 1912-1949==

==Republic: 1912-1949==

====The Long March: 1934-36 ====

====The Long March: 1934-36 ====

In 1934-35, the CCP fled the KMT with over 100,000 men and women. They divided into several armies, marched 6000 miles inland through a brutal terrain of frigid mountain passes, freezing rivers and marshes in search of a sanctuary to continue their revolution.  Desertion was common, local peasants refused to join, and local landlords raided the marchers. The army traded opium for supplies, and women were forced to leave their newborns behind with peasant families because a crying infant could endanger troops.  Critical tactical blunders led to the bloody sacrifice of soldiers in hopeless battles. Only 7000 survived the march.  Intra party struggles and betrayal brought repeated rounds of purges, as Mao emerged as chairman of the Politburo and became the unchallenged leader of the CCP<ref>John M. Glionna, "China's reality check on Long March," [http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-longmarch16jan16,0,3463382.story?coll=la-home-center ''Los Angeles Times, Jan. 16, 2008] </ref>

In 1934-35, the CCP fled the KMT with over 100,000 men and women. They divided into several armies, marched 6000 miles inland through a brutal terrain of frigid mountain passes, freezing rivers and marshes in search of a sanctuary to continue their revolution.  Desertion was common, local peasants refused to join, and local landlords raided the marchers. The army traded opium for supplies, and women were forced to leave their newborns behind with peasant families because a crying infant could endanger troops.  Critical tactical blunders led to the bloody sacrifice of soldiers in hopeless battles. Only 7000 survived the march.  Intra party struggles and betrayal brought repeated rounds of purges, as Mao emerged as chairman of the Politburo and became the unchallenged leader of the CCP.<ref>John M. Glionna, "China's reality check on Long March," [http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-longmarch16jan16,0,3463382.story?coll=la-home-center ''Los Angeles Times, Jan. 16, 2008] </ref>

The Long March became the heroic memory of the CCP, and virtually all the Communist leaders of the next 70 years were marchers or their children.<ref>Sun Shuyun, ''The Long March: The True History of Communist China's Founding Myth'' (2007)</ref>

The Long March became the heroic memory of the CCP, and virtually all the Communist leaders of the next 70 years were marchers or their children.<ref>Sun Shuyun, ''The Long March: The True History of Communist China's Founding Myth'' (2007)</ref>

   

   

===Historiography===

===Historiography===

*  Braester, Yomi. ''Witness against History: Literature, Film, and Public Discourse in Twentieth-Century China.'' Stanford U. Press, 2003. 264 pp.   

*  Braester, Yomi. ''Witness against History: Literature, Film, and Public Discourse in Twentieth-Century China.'' Stanford U. Press, 2003. 264 pp.   

* Crossley, Pamela Kyle. ''A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology'' (2002) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft7n39p1f5/?&query=Ming&brand=ucpress complete text online free]  

* Crossley, Pamela Kyle. ''A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology'' (2002) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft7n39p1f5/?&query=Ming&brand=ucpress complete text online free]  

* Duara, Prasenjit. ''Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China.'' U. of Chicago Press, 1995. 275 pp.  [http://www.amazon.com/Rescuing-History-Nation-Questioning-Narratives/dp/0226167224/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196914090&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

* Duara, Prasenjit. ''Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China.'' U. of Chicago Press, 1995. 275 pp.  [http://www.amazon.com/Rescuing-History-Nation-Questioning-Narratives/dp/0226167224/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196914090&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

* Huang, Ray. ''Broadening the Horizons of Chinese History: Discourses, Syntheses and Comparisons.'' M. E. Sharpe, 1999. 274 pp.  [http://www.questia.com/library/book/broadening-the-horizons-of-chinese-history-discourses-syntheses-and-comparisons-by-ray-huang.jsp online edition from [[Questia]]]

* Huang, Ray. ''Broadening the Horizons of Chinese History: Discourses, Syntheses and Comparisons.'' M. E. Sharpe, 1999. 274 pp.  [http://www.questia.com/library/book/broadening-the-horizons-of-chinese-history-discourses-syntheses-and-comparisons-by-ray-huang.jsp online edition from [[Questia]]]

* Huters, Theodore; Wong, R. Bin; and Yu, Pauline, eds.  ''Culture and State in Chinese History: Convention, Accommodations, and Critiques.'' Stanford U. Press, 1997. 500 pp.   

* Huters, Theodore; Wong, R. Bin; and Yu, Pauline, eds.  ''Culture and State in Chinese History: Convention, Accommodations, and Critiques.'' Stanford U. Press, 1997. 500 pp.   

* Johnston, Alastair Iain. ''Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History.'' Princeton U. Press, 1995. 307 pp.  [http://www.amazon.com/Cultural-Realism-Strategic-Culture-Strategy/dp/0691002398/ref=sr_1_17?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197221105&sr=1-17 excerpt and text search]

* Johnston, Alastair Iain. ''Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History.'' Princeton U. Press, 1995. 307 pp.  [http://www.amazon.com/Cultural-Realism-Strategic-Culture-Strategy/dp/0691002398/ref=sr_1_17?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197221105&sr=1-17 excerpt and text search]

* Lach, Donald F. "China in Western Thought and Culture," in Philip P. Wiener, ed. ''The Dictionary of the History of Ideas'' (1974) [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhiana.cgi?id=dv1-48 online edition]  

* Lach, Donald F. "China in Western Thought and Culture," in Philip P. Wiener, ed. ''The Dictionary of the History of Ideas'' (1974) [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhiana.cgi?id=dv1-48 online edition]  

* Ng, On-Cho and Wang, Q. Edward. ''Mirroring the Past: The Writing and Use of History in Imperial China.'' U. of Hawai`i Press, 2005. 306 pp.   

* Ng, On-Cho and Wang, Q. Edward. ''Mirroring the Past: The Writing and Use of History in Imperial China.'' U. of Hawai`i Press, 2005. 306 pp.   

* Van Kley, Edwin J. "Europe's 'Discovery' of China and the Writing of World History," ''The American Historical Review,'' 76 (1971), 358-85. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8762(197104)76%3A2%3C358%3AE%22OCAT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W in JSTOR]

* Van Kley, Edwin J. "Europe's 'Discovery' of China and the Writing of World History," ''The American Historical Review,'' 76 (1971), 358-85. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8762(197104)76%3A2%3C358%3AE%22OCAT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W in JSTOR]

* Wang, Ben. ''Illuminations from the Past: Trauma, Memory, and History in Modern China.'' Stanford U. Press, 2004. 311 pp.   

* Wang, Ben. ''Illuminations from the Past: Trauma, Memory, and History in Modern China.'' Stanford U. Press, 2004. 311 pp.   

* Wang, David Der-wei. ''The Monster That Is History: History, Violence, and Fictional Writing in Twentieth-Century China.'' U. of California Press, 2004. 402 pp.  [http://www.amazon.com/Monster-That-History-Twentieth-Century-Lilienthal/dp/0520238737/ref=sr_1_20?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197221105&sr=1-20 excerpt and text search]

* Wang, David Der-wei. ''The Monster That Is History: History, Violence, and Fictional Writing in Twentieth-Century China.'' U. of California Press, 2004. 402 pp.  [http://www.amazon.com/Monster-That-History-Twentieth-Century-Lilienthal/dp/0520238737/ref=sr_1_20?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197221105&sr=1-20 excerpt and text search]

* Wang, Q. Edward. ''Inventing China Through History: The May Fourth Approach to Historiography.'' State U. of New York Press, 2001. 304 pp.

* Wang, Q. Edward. ''Inventing China Through History: The May Fourth Approach to Historiography.'' State U. of New York Press, 2001. 304 pp.

* Wilkinson, Endymion.  ''Chinese History, A Manual, Revised and Enlarged.'' Harvard U. Asia Center, 2000. 1181 pp. Standard research guide to 4300 books and sources (most in Chinese) covering all major topics; for advanced users only

* Wilkinson, Endymion.  ''Chinese History, A Manual, Revised and Enlarged.'' Harvard U. Asia Center, 2000. 1181 pp. Standard research guide to 4300 books and sources (most in Chinese) covering all major topics; for advanced users only

* Xia, Yafeng. "The Study of Cold War International History in China: A Review of the Last Twenty Years," ''Journal of Cold War Studies''10#1 Winter 2008, pp. 81-115 in [[Project Muse]]

* Xia, Yafeng. "The Study of Cold War International History in China: A Review of the Last Twenty Years," ''Journal of Cold War Studies''10#1 Winter 2008, pp. 81-115 in [[Project Muse]]