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Line 53: − The movement for constitutionalism gathered momentum following Japan's victory over Russia in 1905, which electrified nationalist across Asia. In 1908, the court issued a timetable: Consultative provincial assemblies by 1909, a consultative national assembly by 1910, and both a constitution and a parliament by 1917. Cixi's death in 1908 left the dynasty practically leaderless. The new emperor was a child and the regent incompetent. The army leaders felt little loyalty to either. They yearned for the return of [[Yuan Shikai]], a Cixi favorite dismissed in 1909.+ Line 59:
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[[Image:Commuting to Work.jpg|right|thumb|Tiananmen gate of the [[Forbidden City]]. The Forbidden City used to be the palace of the emperor of China, it is now a tourist attraction.]]
The origin of Chinese civilization is shrouded in myth and conflicting tales. Documented history begins with the [[Shang dynasty]], founded about 1600 BC. China has long been the most populous country in the world. It's warring states were united into a single nation by Qin Shi Huang, the king of Qin, in 221 BC. For the next two thousand years, the country was ruled by a series of dynasties that followed the principles of [[Confucianism]]. Officials were selected by an examination system which tested their knowledge of classic works of literature. The Qing (1644-1911), the last of these dynasties, was founded by the Manchu, a nomadic people from the northeast.
The origin of Chinese civilization is shrouded in myth and conflicting tales. Documented history begins with the [[Shang dynasty]], founded about 1600 BC. China has long been the most populous country in the world. It's warring states were united into a single nation by Qin Shi Huang, the king of Qin, in 221 BC. For the next two thousand years, the country was ruled by a series of dynasties that followed the principles of [[Confucianism]]. Officials were selected by an examination system which tested their knowledge of classic works of literature. The Qing (1644-1911), the last of these dynasties, was founded by the Manchu, a nomadic people from the northeast.
Market-oriented reforms have allowed the country to experience rapid economic growth since 1978. China's economy is now has the world's second largest, surpassing that of Japan in 2010. However, the Communist Party maintains a monopoly on political power. In 1989, the army killed thousands of anti-Communist demonstrators in the Tiananmen Square Massacre.
Market-oriented reforms have allowed the country to experience rapid economic growth since 1978. China's economy is now has the world's second largest, surpassing that of Japan in 2010. However, the Communist Party maintains a monopoly on political power. In 1989, the army killed thousands of anti-Communist demonstrators in the Tiananmen Square Massacre.
==Origins==
==Origins==
===Mythological===
===Mythological===
[[File:China1.jpg|thumb|A map of China]]
Traditional history begins with Pangu, the first living being. When Pangu died, his left eye became the Sun. Various parts of his body became different parts of the Earth. There followed a succession of Three Sovereigns, or demigod rulers. The first and best known of these was Fuxi (2852–2737 BC). Fuxi and his sister Nüwa survived a worldwide flood by retreating to the Kunlun Mountains. After the Three Sovereigns, China was ruled by the Five Emperors. The Yellow Emperor (r. 2698–2598 BC) is given credit for numerous inventions and is considered the founder of Chinese civilization.
Traditional history begins with Pangu, the first living being. When Pangu died, his left eye became the Sun. Various parts of his body became different parts of the Earth. There followed a succession of Three Sovereigns, or demigod rulers. The first and best known of these was Fuxi (2852–2737 BC). Fuxi and his sister Nüwa survived a worldwide flood by retreating to the Kunlun Mountains. After the Three Sovereigns, China was ruled by the Five Emperors. The Yellow Emperor (r. 2698–2598 BC) is given credit for numerous inventions and is considered the founder of Chinese civilization.
===Historical===
===Historical===
{{History of China}}
The traditional view of ancient Chinese history, still promoted by the Chinese government, is of a succession of dynasties from Xia to Shang to Zhou going back 5,000 years. Historians working in China identify Erlitou with the Xia dynasty.<ref>The official view of ancient chronology is given by the [http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/17161 Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project] (2001), which refines the traditional timeline.</ref> Other states and cultures existed at the same time, and the focus on the traditional dynastic sequence may reflect the basis of dynasty-oriented historians. Among the first historians to carefully separate myth from history was [[Sima Qian]]. His history begins with the exile of King Li of the Zhou dynasty in 841 BC, still the earliest securely dated event in Chinese history.
The traditional view of ancient Chinese history, still promoted by the Chinese government, is of a succession of dynasties from Xia to Shang to Zhou going back 5,000 years. Historians working in China identify Erlitou with the Xia dynasty.<ref>The official view of ancient chronology is given by the [http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/17161 Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project] (2001), which refines the traditional timeline.</ref> Other states and cultures existed at the same time, and the focus on the traditional dynastic sequence may reflect the basis of dynasty-oriented historians. Among the first historians to carefully separate myth from history was [[Sima Qian]]. His history begins with the exile of King Li of the Zhou dynasty in 841 BC, still the earliest securely dated event in Chinese history.
New armies were raised and trained in European (and Japanese) fashion and plans for a national army were laid. The creation of the "new army" reflected rising esteem for the military profession and the emergence of a new national elite that dominated China for much of the 20th century. More officers and men were now literate, while patriotism and better pay served as an inducement for service.
New armies were raised and trained in European (and Japanese) fashion and plans for a national army were laid. The creation of the "new army" reflected rising esteem for the military profession and the emergence of a new national elite that dominated China for much of the 20th century. More officers and men were now literate, while patriotism and better pay served as an inducement for service.
Japan's victory over Russia in 1905 electrified nationalists across Asia. The adoption of a constitutional monarchy in Russia following the war created a model for action. In 1908, the court issued a timetable: Consultative provincial assemblies by 1909, a consultative national assembly by 1910, and both a constitution and a parliament by 1917. Cixi's death in 1908 left the dynasty practically leaderless. The new emperor was a child and the regent incompetent. The army leaders felt little loyalty to either. They yearned for the return of [[Yuan Shikai]], a Cixi favorite dismissed in 1909.
===Revolution planned===
===Revolution planned===
==Republic: 1912-1949==
==Republic: 1912-1949==
===Dictatorship of Yuan Shikai 1911-1916===
===Dictatorship of Yuan Shikai 1911-1916===
By 1911 China had 400 million people and the beginnings of a modern railroad system. The administrative system remained hopelessly inadequate; for example the central government never knew how much was raised in taxes (only a small part of which it obtained). Unrest with the failures of the Qing dynasty continued to escalate, despite belated efforts at reform. [[Sun Yat-sen]] (1866-1925) created a revolutionary ferment based in the worldwide Chinese diaspora. The old dynasty collapsed in 1911 as soldiers of the modernized army revolted, and the emperor abdicated in early 1912. A republic was proclaimed on January 1, 1912, but power was held by a [[Yuan Shikai]] (1859-1916), a soldier. The Nationalist ("Kuomintang" or [[KMT]]) party won the first national elections in 1912, but Yuan had the KMT leader assassinated, crushed republican uprisings in 1913 (called the "Second revolution"), shut down parliament, and ruled as dictator. Yuan's foreign policy was subservience to the foreign powers; he accepted Japan's Twenty-One demands, giving Japan control of Manchuria and a voice in internal affairs; it was a humiliation the people rejected. Yuan even tried to proclaim himself emperor, but the spirit of [[republicanism]] was too strong and a rising revolt, based in the south, was about to overthrow him when he suddenly died of natural causes in June 1916.<ref>Hsü, (1999) ch 20</ref>
By 1911 China had 400 million people and the beginnings of a railroad system. The administrative system remained hopelessly inadequate; for example the central government never knew how much was raised in taxes (only a small part of which it obtained). The old dynasty collapsed in 1911 as soldiers of the modernized army revolted, and the emperor abdicated in early 1912. A republic was proclaimed on January 1, 1912, but power was held by leader [[Yuan Shikai]] (1859-1916), leader of Beiyang army. The Nationalist ("Kuomintang" or [[KMT]]) party won parliamentary elections in 1912, but Yuan had the KMT leader assassinated, crushed republican uprisings in 1913 (called the "Second revolution"), shut down parliament, and ruled as dictator. Yuan proclaimed himself emperor, which triggered an uprising based in the South. The Beiyang leaders felt Confucian loyalty to Yuan as the founder and former director of academy in which they were trained. But few appreciated the prospect of serving his playboy son, who was now heir to the throne. Confrontation was averted when Yuan suddenly died of natural causes in June 1916.<ref>Hsü, (1999) ch 20</ref>
===Age of Warloards, 1916-1927===
===Age of warlords, 1916-1927===
After Yuan's death power devolved to regional warlords, and there was little or no central government until 1928.<ref>Hsü, (1999) ch 20</ref>
After Yuan's death power, the Beiyang clique devolved to regional warlords, and there was little or no central government until 1928.<ref>Hsü, (1999) ch 20</ref> The Beiyang clig
===KMT government 1927-1937===
===KMT government 1927-1937===
==Massacre at Tiananmen Square==
==Massacre at Tiananmen Square==
The death of Hu Yaobang on April 15, 1989, coupled with growing economic hardship caused by high inflation, provided the backdrop for a large-scale protest movement by students, intellectuals, and other parts of a disaffected urban population. University students and other citizens camped out in Beijing's Tiananmen Square to mourn Hu's death and to protest against those who would slow reform.
The death of Hu Yaobang on April 15, 1989, coupled with growing economic hardship caused by high inflation, provided the backdrop for a large-scale protest movement by students, intellectuals, and other parts of a disaffected urban population. University students and other citizens camped out in Beijing's Tiananmen Square to mourn Hu's death and to protest against those who would slow reform.
For a more detailed guide go to the Bibliography below
For a more detailed guide go to the Bibliography below
* Eberharad, Wolfram. ''A History of China'' (2005), 380 pages' [http://books.google.com/books?id=5LgjunIn1CEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:history+intitle:china&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=k1CgHXYb6jQ6BgdwVpUWngov7So full text online free]
*Eberharad, Wolfram. ''A History of China'' (2005), 380 pages' [http://books.google.com/books?id=5LgjunIn1CEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:history+intitle:china&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=k1CgHXYb6jQ6BgdwVpUWngov7So full text online free]
* Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, and Kwang-ching Liu. ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of China'' (1999) 352 pages [http://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Illustrated-History-China-Histories/dp/052166991X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197346890&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, and Kwang-ching Liu. ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of China'' (1999) 352 pages [http://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Illustrated-History-China-Histories/dp/052166991X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197346890&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Fairbank, John King and Goldman, Merle. ''China: A New History.'' (2nd ed. 2006). 640 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/China-New-History-Second-Enlarged/dp/0674018281/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197346975&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Fairbank, John King and Goldman, Merle. ''China: A New History.'' (2nd ed. 2006). 640 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/China-New-History-Second-Enlarged/dp/0674018281/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197346975&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Dietrich, Craig. ''People's China: A Brief History,'' 3d ed. (1997), 398pp [http://www.amazon.com/Peoples-China-History-Craig-Dietrich/dp/0195106288/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197238522&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Dietrich, Craig. ''People's China: A Brief History,'' 3d ed. (1997), 398pp [http://www.amazon.com/Peoples-China-History-Craig-Dietrich/dp/0195106288/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197238522&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Kirby, William C., ed. ''Realms of Freedom in Modern China.'' (2004). 416 pp.
* Kirby, William C., ed. ''Realms of Freedom in Modern China.'' (2004). 416 pp.
* Kirby, William C.; Ross, Robert S.; and Gong, Li, eds. ''Normalization of U.S.-China Relations: An International History.'' (2005). 376 pp.
* Kirby, William C.; Ross, Robert S.; and Gong, Li, eds. ''Normalization of U.S.-China Relations: An International History.'' (2005). 376 pp.
* Li, Xiaobing. ''A History of the Modern Chinese Army'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Modern-Chinese-Army/dp/0813124387/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200477281&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* Li, Xiaobing. ''A History of the Modern Chinese Army'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/History-Modern-Chinese-Army/dp/0813124387/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200477281&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]
* MacFarquhar, Roderick and Fairbank, John K., eds. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 15: The People's Republic, Part 2: Revolutions within the Chinese Revolution, 1966-1982.'' Cambridge U. Press, 1992. 1108 pp.
* MacFarquhar, Roderick and Fairbank, John K., eds. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 15: The People's Republic, Part 2: Revolutions within the Chinese Revolution, 1966-1982.'' Cambridge U. Press, 1992. 1108 pp.