Changes

==Republic: 1912-1949==

==Republic: 1912-1949==

===Dictatorship of Yuan Shikai 1911-1916===

===Yuan Shikai 1911-1916===

By 1911 China had 400 million people and the beginnings of a railroad system. The old dynasty collapsed in 1911 as soldiers mutinied, and the emperor abdicated in early 1912. A republic was proclaimed on January 1, 1912, but power was held by [[Yuan Shikai]] (1859-1916), leader of Beiyang army. The Nationalist ("Kuomintang" or [[KMT]]) party won parliamentary elections in 1912, but Yuan had the KMT leader assassinated, crushed republican uprisings in 1913 (called the "Second revolution"), shut down parliament, and ruled as dictator. Yuan proclaimed himself emperor in 1915. This immediately triggered an uprising based in the South. The Beiyang officers felt loyalty to Yuan as a former commander who reorganized the army; Most owed their positions to him. But few appreciated the prospect of serving his playboy son, who was now heir to the throne. Confrontation was averted when Yuan suddenly died of natural causes in June 1916.<ref>Hsü, (1999) ch 20</ref>

By 1911 China had 400 million people and the beginnings of a railroad system. The old dynasty collapsed in 1911 as soldiers mutinied, and the emperor abdicated in early 1912. A republic was proclaimed on January 1, 1912, but power was held by army leader [[Yuan Shikai]] (1859-1916). The army officers felt loyalty to Yuan as a former commander who reorganized the army. Most owed their positions to him. The Nationalist Party won parliamentary elections in 1912, but Yuan had the parliamentary leader assassinated, crushed republican uprisings in 1913 (called the "Second revolution"), shut down parliament, and ruled as dictator. Yuan proclaimed himself emperor in 1915. This immediately triggered an uprising based in the South. Few army officers appreciated the prospect of serving Yuan's playboy son, who was now heir to the throne. Confrontation was averted when Yuan suddenly died of natural causes in June 1916.<ref>Hsü, (1999) ch 20</ref>

===Age of warlords, 1916-1927===

===Age of warlords, 1916-1927===

After Yuan's death, the Beiyang clique at first backed Prime Minister Duan Qirui. By 1919, army leadership had devolved into three rival factions: Anhui, Zhili, and Fengtian.<ref>Hsü, (1999) ch 20</ref> Zhang Zuolin, warlord of Manchuria and head of the Fengtian clique, was backed by Japan. He gained control of Beijing in 1926. The reactionary character of the Zhang government provoked a backlash in the more reform-minded South. The Nationalist Party, now backed by the Soviets, established a rival government in Guangzhou in 1925. The Nationalists founded the Whampoa Academy to train officers who would be loyal to the party, and not affiliated with any of the Beiyang cliques.

After Yuan's death, the Beiyang clique at first backed Prime Minister Duan Qirui. By 1919, army leadership had devolved into three rival factions: Anhui, Zhili, and Fengtian.<ref>Hsü, (1999) ch 20</ref> Zhang Zuolin, warlord of Manchuria and head of the Fengtian clique, was backed by Japan. He gained control of Beijing in 1926. The reactionary character of the Zhang regime provoked a backlash in the more reform-minded South. Sun Yat-sen and the Nationalist Party, backed by the Soviets, established a rival government in Guangzhou in 1925. Whampoa Academy trained a new generation of army officers who would be loyal to the party, not affiliated with any of the Beiyang cliques.

===KMT government 1927-1937===

===Nationalist China: 1927-1937===

Under the leadership of the [[KMT]] (Kuomintang), headed by [[Chiang Kai-shek]] (1887-1975), the central government finally suppressed the local warlords who effectively controlled many provinces. Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, and in 1937 invaded all of China, defeating the government armies, seizing the coast, the major cities, and setting up a puppet government that controlled most of the population. China's resistance was ineffective.<ref> Spence, ''Search for Modern China'' (1990) ch 14-16</ref>  

[[Chiang Kai-shek]], who become Nationalist leader following Sun's death, defeated the Beiyang warlords and moved to central government to Nanjing in 1927. A warlord revolt was defeated in a brief but bloody war in 1930. Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, and in 1937 invaded all of China, defeating the government armies, seizing the coast, the major cities, and setting up a puppet government that controlled most of the population. China's resistance was ineffective.<ref> Spence, ''Search for Modern China'' (1990) ch 14-16</ref>  

===Communist Party===

===Communist Party===