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Line 49: − New ministries were created in Beijing and revised law codes were drafted. Work began on a national budget--the national government had no idea how much taxes were collected in its name and spent by regional officials. + − − New armies were raised and trained in European (and Japanese) fashion and plans for a national army were laid. The creation of the "new army" reflected rising esteem for the military profession and the emergence of a new national elite that dominated China for much of the 20th century. More officers and men were now literate, while patriotism and better pay served as an inducement for service.
→Reforms 1901-1908
The humiliation of the Boxer Rebellion stimulated a second reform movement--this time sanctioned by Empress Dowager [[Cixi]]. From 1901 to 1908, the dynasty announced a series of educational, military, and administrative reforms, many reminiscent of the "one hundreds days" of 1898. The imperial examinations of 1902 and 1904 included questions on the politics, science and technology of all countries, requiring some 50,000 students to study such subjects, most of whom would not otherwise be interested.<ref>Iwo Amelung, "[http://proj3.sinica.edu.tw/~icosas/download/ScholarSummary/278.pdf The Examination System and the Dissemination of Western Knowledge during the Late Qing]"</ref> Unfortunately, the examination system was abolished in 1905.
The humiliation of the Boxer Rebellion stimulated a second reform movement--this time sanctioned by Empress Dowager [[Cixi]]. From 1901 to 1908, the dynasty announced a series of educational, military, and administrative reforms, many reminiscent of the "one hundreds days" of 1898. The imperial examinations of 1902 and 1904 included questions on the politics, science and technology of all countries, requiring some 50,000 students to study such subjects, most of whom would not otherwise be interested.<ref>Iwo Amelung, "[http://proj3.sinica.edu.tw/~icosas/download/ScholarSummary/278.pdf The Examination System and the Dissemination of Western Knowledge during the Late Qing]"</ref> Unfortunately, the examination system was abolished in 1905.
Armies were raised and trained in European (and Japanese) fashion and plans for a national army were laid. The creation of the "new army" reflected rising esteem for the military profession and the emergence of a new national elite that dominated China for much of the 20th century. More officers and men were now literate, while patriotism and better pay served as an inducement for service.
Japan's victory over Russia in 1905 electrified nationalists across Asia. The adoption of a constitutional monarchy in Russia following the war created a model for action. In 1908, the court issued a timetable: Consultative provincial assemblies by 1909, a consultative national assembly by 1910, and both a constitution and a parliament by 1917. Cixi's death in 1908 left the dynasty practically leaderless. The new emperor was a child and the regent incompetent. The army leaders felt little loyalty to either. They yearned for the return of [[Yuan Shikai]], a Cixi favorite dismissed in 1909.
Japan's victory over Russia in 1905 electrified nationalists across Asia. The adoption of a constitutional monarchy in Russia following the war created a model for action. In 1908, the court issued a timetable: Consultative provincial assemblies by 1909, a consultative national assembly by 1910, and both a constitution and a parliament by 1917. Cixi's death in 1908 left the dynasty practically leaderless. The new emperor was a child and the regent incompetent. The army leaders felt little loyalty to either. They yearned for the return of [[Yuan Shikai]], a Cixi favorite dismissed in 1909.