Changes

The traditional view of ancient Chinese history, still promoted by the Chinese government, is of a succession of dynasties from Xia to Shang to Zhou going back 5,000 years. Historians working in China identify Erlitou with the Xia dynasty.<ref>The official view of ancient chronology is given by the [http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/17161 Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project] (2001), which refines the traditional timeline.</ref> Other states and cultures existed at the same time, and the focus on the traditional dynastic sequence may reflect the basis of dynasty-oriented historians. Among the first historians to carefully separate myth from history was [[Sima Qian]]. His history begins with the exile of King Li of the Zhou dynasty in 841 BC, still the earliest securely dated event in Chinese history.

The traditional view of ancient Chinese history, still promoted by the Chinese government, is of a succession of dynasties from Xia to Shang to Zhou going back 5,000 years. Historians working in China identify Erlitou with the Xia dynasty.<ref>The official view of ancient chronology is given by the [http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/17161 Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project] (2001), which refines the traditional timeline.</ref> Other states and cultures existed at the same time, and the focus on the traditional dynastic sequence may reflect the basis of dynasty-oriented historians. Among the first historians to carefully separate myth from history was [[Sima Qian]]. His history begins with the exile of King Li of the Zhou dynasty in 841 BC, still the earliest securely dated event in Chinese history.

==Xia dynasty (2070–c. 1600 BC) ==

==Xia dynasty: 2070–c. 1600 BC==

The Xia dynasty is thought to be a legend invented by the Zhou to justify their conquest of the Shang. That is it to say, it allowed the Zhou to claim that the Shang, too, were conquers. (This can be compared to the King Arthur legend in England, which Medieval writers developed to justify the Norman conquest.) The traditional list of kings and the existence of a unified Chinese state at this time are problematic. Nonetheless, the term "Xia dynasty" is used by historians in China to describe archaeological finds from this period. There are classified as Calcolithic, i.e. they show a mixture of copper and bronze technology. Calcolithic is a transitional stage between the neolithic and the Bronze Age. These existence of a transitional period suggests that China developed bronze independently

The Xia dynasty is thought to be a legend invented by the Zhou to justify their conquest of the Shang. That is it to say, it allowed the Zhou to claim that the Shang, too, were conquers. (This can be compared to the King Arthur legend in England, which Medieval writers developed to justify the Norman conquest.) The traditional list of kings and the existence of a unified Chinese state at this time are problematic. Nonetheless, the term "Xia dynasty" is used by historians in China to describe archaeological finds from this period. There are classified as Calcolithic, i.e. they show a mixture of copper and bronze technology. Calcolithic is a transitional stage between the neolithic and the Bronze Age. These existence of a transitional period suggests that China developed bronze independently

==Shang dynasty (1600-c. 1046 BC) ==

==Shang dynasty: 1600-c. 1046 BC==

The Shang, found in 1600 BC, was China's first fully historical dynasty. It was a Bronze Age culture.  

The Shang, found in 1600 BC, was China's first fully historical dynasty. It was a Bronze Age culture.  

==Zhou dynasty (c. 1045–256 BC)==

==Zhou dynasty: c. 1045–256 BC==

Iron replaced bronze around 600 BC, during the Zhou dynasty.

Iron replaced bronze around 600 BC, during the Zhou dynasty.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the country was beset by large-scale civil wars, major famines, military defeats by Britain and Japan, regional control by powerful warlords and foreign intervention such as the [[Boxer Rebellion]] of 1900. In the 1860s, electrotype technology was applied to allow newspapers in the Chinese language to be mass produced and widely circulated. Christian missionaries were at the forefront in taking advantage of this technology. The reformers of the 1890s were educated concerning modern approaches and ideologies by their publications, particularly ''Wanguo Gongbao'' (A Review of the Times).

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the country was beset by large-scale civil wars, major famines, military defeats by Britain and Japan, regional control by powerful warlords and foreign intervention such as the [[Boxer Rebellion]] of 1900. In the 1860s, electrotype technology was applied to allow newspapers in the Chinese language to be mass produced and widely circulated. Christian missionaries were at the forefront in taking advantage of this technology. The reformers of the 1890s were educated concerning modern approaches and ideologies by their publications, particularly ''Wanguo Gongbao'' (A Review of the Times).

===Reforms 1901-1908===

===Reforms: 1901-1908===

The humiliation of the Boxer Rebellion stimulated a second reform movement--this time sanctioned by Empress Dowager [[Cixi]]. From 1901 to 1908, the dynasty announced a series of educational, military, and administrative reforms, many reminiscent of the "one hundreds days" of 1898. The imperial examinations of 1902 and 1904 included questions on the politics, science and technology of all countries, requiring some 50,000 students to study such subjects, most of whom would not otherwise be interested.<ref>Iwo Amelung, "[http://proj3.sinica.edu.tw/~icosas/download/ScholarSummary/278.pdf The Examination System and the Dissemination of Western Knowledge during the Late Qing]"</ref> Unfortunately, the examination system was abolished in 1905.

The humiliation of the Boxer Rebellion stimulated a second reform movement--this time sanctioned by Empress Dowager [[Cixi]]. From 1901 to 1908, the dynasty announced a series of educational, military, and administrative reforms, many reminiscent of the "one hundreds days" of 1898. The imperial examinations of 1902 and 1904 included questions on the politics, science and technology of all countries, requiring some 50,000 students to study such subjects, most of whom would not otherwise be interested.<ref>Iwo Amelung, "[http://proj3.sinica.edu.tw/~icosas/download/ScholarSummary/278.pdf The Examination System and the Dissemination of Western Knowledge during the Late Qing]"</ref> Unfortunately, the examination system was abolished in 1905.

==Republic: 1912-1949==

==Republic: 1912-1949==

===Yuan Shikai 1911-1916===

===Yuan Shikai: 1911-1916===

By 1911 China had 400 million people and the beginnings of a railroad system. The old dynasty collapsed in 1911 as soldiers mutinied, and the emperor abdicated in early 1912. A republic was proclaimed on January 1, 1912, but power was held by army leader [[Yuan Shikai]] (1859-1916). The army officers felt loyalty to Yuan as a former commander who reorganized the army. Most owed their positions to him. The Nationalist Party won parliamentary elections in 1913, but Yuan had the parliamentary leader assassinated, crushed republican uprisings, shut down parliament, and ruled as a dictator. Yuan proclaimed himself emperor in 1915. This triggered an uprising based in the South. Few army officers appreciated the prospect of serving Yuan's playboy son, who was now heir to the throne. Faced with unanimous opposition, Yuan renounced the throne. He died suddenly of natural causes in June 1916.<ref>Hsü, (1999) ch 20</ref>

By 1911 China had 400 million people and the beginnings of a railroad system. The old dynasty collapsed in 1911 as soldiers mutinied, and the emperor abdicated in early 1912. A republic was proclaimed on January 1, 1912, but power was held by army leader [[Yuan Shikai]] (1859-1916). The army officers felt loyalty to Yuan as a former commander who reorganized the army. Most owed their positions to him. The Nationalist Party won parliamentary elections in 1913, but Yuan had the parliamentary leader assassinated, crushed republican uprisings, shut down parliament, and ruled as a dictator. Yuan proclaimed himself emperor in 1915. This triggered an uprising based in the South. Few army officers appreciated the prospect of serving Yuan's playboy son, who was now heir to the throne. Faced with unanimous opposition, Yuan renounced the throne. He died suddenly of natural causes in June 1916.<ref>Hsü, (1999) ch 20</ref>

===Age of warlords, 1916-1927===

===Age of warlords: 1916-1930===

After Yuan's death, the Beiyang clique at first backed Prime Minister Duan Qirui. By 1919, army leadership had devolved into three rival factions: Anhui, Zhili, and Fengtian.<ref>Hsü, (1999) ch 20</ref> Zhang Zuolin, warlord of Manchuria and head of the Fengtian clique, was backed by Japan. He gained control of Beijing in 1926. The reactionary character of the Zhang regime provoked a backlash in the more reform-minded South. Sun Yat-sen and the Nationalist Party, backed by the Soviets, established a rival government in Guangzhou in 1925. Whampoa Academy trained a new generation of army officers who would be loyal to the party, not affiliated with any of the Beiyang cliques.

After Yuan's death, the Beiyang clique at first backed Prime Minister Duan Qirui. By 1919, army leadership had devolved into three rival factions: Anhui, Zhili, and Fengtian.<ref>Hsü, (1999) ch 20</ref> Zhang Zuolin, warlord of Manchuria and head of the Fengtian clique, was backed by Japan. He gained control of Beijing in 1926. The reactionary character of the Zhang regime provoked a backlash in the more reform-minded South. Sun Yat-sen and the Nationalist Party, backed by the Soviets, established a rival government in Guangzhou in 1925. Whampoa Academy trained a new generation of army officers who would be loyal to the party, not affiliated with any of the Beiyang cliques.

===Nationalist China: 1927-1937===

===The Nanjing decade: 1927-1937===

[[Chiang Kai-shek]], who become Nationalist leader following Sun's death, defeated the Beiyang warlords and moved to central government to Nanjing in 1927. A warlord revolt was defeated in a brief but bloody war in 1930. Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, and in 1937 invaded all of China, defeating the government armies, seizing the coast, the major cities, and setting up a puppet government that controlled most of the population. China's resistance was ineffective.<ref> Spence, ''Search for Modern China'' (1990) ch 14-16</ref>  

[[Chiang Kai-shek]], who become Nationalist leader following Sun's death, defeated the Beiyang warlords and moved to central government to Nanjing in 1927. A warlord revolt was defeated in a brief but bloody war in 1930. Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, and in 1937 invaded all of China, defeating the government armies, seizing the coast, the major cities, and setting up a puppet government that controlled most of the population. China's resistance was ineffective.<ref> Spence, ''Search for Modern China'' (1990) ch 14-16</ref>  

The city of [[Chongqing]] became the most frequently bombed city in history.<ref>[http://www.cs.albany.edu/~lance/china/chongqing.htm Chóngqìng].</ref>

The city of [[Chongqing]] became the most frequently bombed city in history.<ref>[http://www.cs.albany.edu/~lance/china/chongqing.htm Chóngqìng].</ref>

Though China received [[Lend Lease]] economic and military aid from the United States, China did not have sufficient infrastructure to properly arm or even feed its military forces. Much of the aid was lost to corruption and extreme inefficiency.  

Though China received [[Lend Lease]] economic and military aid from the United States, China did not have sufficient infrastructure to properly arm or even feed its military forces. Much of the aid was lost to corruption and extreme inefficiency.

===Civil War: 1946-1949===

 

 

===Civil War: 1945-1949===

China was allied with the U.S. and Britain against Japan, and at war's end joined the United Nations as a permanent member of the 5-nation Security Council, with a veto.  The Americans attempted to force a negotiated settlement between the KMT and the Communists, but failed.

China was allied with the U.S. and Britain against Japan, and at war's end joined the United Nations as a permanent member of the 5-nation Security Council, with a veto.  The Americans attempted to force a negotiated settlement between the KMT and the Communists, but failed.

===The Cultural Revolution===

===The Cultural Revolution===

[[Image:Yun Xin.jpg|left|thumb|Painting by Yun Xin, born in 1944]]

[[Image:Yun Xin.jpg|left|thumb|Painting by Yun Xin, born in 1944]]

In the early 1960s, State President Liu Shaoqi and his prot&#233;g&#233;, Party General Secretary Deng Xiaoping, took over direction of the party and adopted pragmatic economic policies at odds with Mao's revolutionary vision. Dissatisfied with China's new direction and his own reduced authority, Mao launched a massive political attack on Liu, Deng, and other pragmatists in the spring of 1966.

Mao was discredit by the failure of the Great Leap Forward, and power shifted the party boss Liu Shaoqi and his prot&#233;g&#233;, Deng Xiaoping. Dissatisfied with China's new direction and his own reduced authority, Mao launched a massive political attack on Liu, Deng, and other pragmatists in the spring of 1966.

In the early stages of the Cultural Revolution, Mao and [[Lin Biao]] charged Liu, Deng, and other top party leaders with dragging China back toward capitalism. In 1971, Lin Biao was accused of plotting against Mao. He fled Beijing and died in a plane crash in Mongolia.  

In the early stages of the Cultural Revolution, Mao and [[Lin Biao]] charged Liu, Deng, and other top party leaders with dragging China back toward capitalism. In 1971, Lin Biao was accused of plotting against Mao. He fled Beijing and died in a plane crash in Mongolia.  

===The post-Mao era===

===The post-Mao era===

After Mao's death in September 1976 Hua Guofeng was quickly confirmed as party chairman and premier. Hua had been a mere middle manager until 1975 when he was promoted to vice premier as Zhou Enlai's health faded, and then to premier when Zhou died. Mao may have selected an unknown to avoid antagonizing either Deng's or Jiang's factions.

After Mao's death in September 1976 Hua Guofeng was quickly confirmed as party chairman and premier. A month later, Hua, backed by the army, arrested Jiang Qing and other members of the "Gang of Four" that organized the Cultural Revolution.  

 

A month later, Hua, backed by the army, arrested Jiang Qing and other members of the "Gang of Four" that organized the Cultural Revolution.  

In December 1978, the Third Plenum (of the 11th Party Congress Central Committee) adopted economic reform policies aimed at expanding rural income and incentives, encouraging experiments in enterprise autonomy, reducing central planning, and attracting foreign direct investment into China. Hua was force to resign at this time, leaving Deng Xiaoping as top leader.

In December 1978, the Third Plenum (of the 11th Party Congress Central Committee) adopted economic reform policies aimed at expanding rural income and incentives, encouraging experiments in enterprise autonomy, reducing central planning, and attracting foreign direct investment into China. Hua was force to resign at this time, leaving Deng as top leader.

Deng focused on market-oriented economic development. By 2000, output had quadrupled, population growth ended (by imposing a one-child policy), and good relations were secured with the West.

Deng focused on market-oriented economic development. By 2000, output had quadrupled, population growth ended (by imposing a one-child policy), and good relations were secured with the West.

==Massacre at Tiananmen Square==

==Massacre at Tiananmen Square==

The death of Hu Yaobang on April 15, 1989, coupled with growing economic hardship caused by high inflation, provided the backdrop for a large-scale protest movement by students, intellectuals, and other parts of a disaffected urban population. University students and other citizens camped out in Beijing's Tiananmen Square to mourn Hu's death and to protest against those who would slow reform.  

The death of Hu Yaobang on April 15, 1989, coupled with growing economic hardship caused by high inflation, triggered protests by students, intellectuals, and others. The protesters camped out in Beijing's Tiananmen Square to mourn Hu's death and to protest against those who would slow reform.  

Martial law was declared on May 20, 1989. Late on June 3 and early on the morning of June 4, military units were brought into Beijing. They used armed force to clear demonstrators from the streets. There are no official estimates of deaths in Beijing, but most observers believe that casualties numbered in the hundreds.  

Martial law was declared on May 20, 1989. Late on June 3 and early on the morning of June 4, military units were brought into Beijing. They used armed force to clear demonstrators from the streets. There are no official estimates of deaths in Beijing, but most observers believe that casualties numbered in the hundreds.  

===The third and four generation of leaders===

===Post Deng China===

Deng's health deteriorated in the years prior to his death in 1997. During that time, Jiang Zemin and other members of his generation gradually assumed control of the day-to-day functions of government.

Deng's health deteriorated in the years prior to his death in 1997. During that time, Jiang Zemin and other members of his generation gradually assumed control of the day-to-day functions of government. In November 2002, [[Hu Jintao]] was selected leader. In 1992, he had been designated by Deng Xiaoping as the "core" of the fourth generation leaders. On March 14, 2013 [[Xi Jinping]] was "elected" as new president.<ref>http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/9929619/Xi-Jinping-elected-Chinas-president-Telegraph-dispatch.html</ref>

 

In November 2002, [[Hu Jintao]] was selected leader. In 1992, he had been designated by Deng Xiaoping as the "core" of the fourth generation leaders. On March 14, 2013 [[Xi Jinping]] was "elected" as new president.<ref>http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/9929619/Xi-Jinping-elected-Chinas-president-Telegraph-dispatch.html</ref>

==References==

==References==