Changes

===The warlord era: 1916-1930===

===The warlord era: 1916-1930===

After Yuan died in 1916, the officers of the Beiyang army divided into rival warlord cliques. Puyi, the former Qing emperor, was briefly restored in 1917. It took eleven days for Premier Duan Qirui, leader of the pro-Japanese Anhui clique, to defeated the imperialists and reinstate the republic. In 1920, the Zhili clique defeated Anhui's forces and Duan was ousted. Zhili warlord Cao Kun gained the presidency in 1923 by paying out bribes of 5,000 silver dollars each to members of the National Assembly. Not reconciled to Zhili's ascendency, the Japanese backed the rival Fengtian clique led by Zhang Zuolin, warlord of Manchuria. In October 1924, a Zhili commander defected, marched into Beijing, and evicted Puyi from the Forbidden City. The Beijing coup soon collapsed, but Zhili had lost its advantage in the war with Fengtian. The fighting in 1924 was far more destructive than earlier disputes among the warlords. In November, the reactionary Duan was made president. This time around, Duan was no longer a clique leader, but rather a stalking horse for Zhang. His appointment pleased the Japanese, but did not go over well in southern or eastern China. Public opinion was fed up with the militarists, as the success of the May Thirtieth protests in 1925 demonstrates. As China's internationally recognized government, Beijing still received the revenue of the Chinese Maritime Customs Service, which had international management. But Manchuria had long been massively overtaxed to support Zhang's adventurism, and the customs revenue was not enough to prevent an economic collapse in 1927–1928.

After Yuan died in 1916, the officers of the Beiyang army divided into rival cliques. Puyi, the former Qing emperor, was briefly restored in 1917. It took eleven days for Premier Duan Qirui, leader of the pro-Japanese Anhui clique, to defeated the imperialists and reinstate the republic. In 1920, the Zhili clique defeated Anhui's forces and Duan was ousted. Zhili warlord Cao Kun gained the presidency in 1923 by paying out bribes of 5,000 silver dollars each to members of the National Assembly. Not reconciled to Zhili's ascendency, the Japanese backed the rival Fengtian clique led by Zhang Zuolin, warlord of Manchuria. In October 1924, a Zhili commander defected, marched into Beijing, and evicted Puyi from the Forbidden City. The Beijing coup soon collapsed, but Zhili had lost its advantage in the war with Fengtian. The fighting in 1924 was far more destructive than earlier disputes among the warlords. In November, the reactionary Duan was made president. This time around, Duan was no longer a clique leader, but rather a stalking horse for Zhang. His appointment pleased the Japanese, but did not go over well in southern or eastern China. Public opinion was fed up with the militarists, as the success of the May Thirtieth protests in 1925 demonstrates. As China's internationally recognized government, Beijing still received the revenue of the Chinese Maritime Customs Service, which had international management. But Manchuria had long been massively overtaxed to support Zhang's adventurism, and the customs revenue was not enough to prevent an economic collapse in 1927–1928.

China in the 1920s was more than squalid tales of greed, corruption, and betrayal among the militarists in Beijing. This was also the “high modern” period when all things modern and “scientific” were revered. Writers such as Lu Xun abandon the classical style of Confucius in favor of idioms and constructions closer to contemporary spoken Chinese.<ref>Lu Xun's vernacular novel ''The True Story of Ah Q'' was published in 1921.</ref> The shift from Classical Chinese to Mandarin can be compared to the shift from Latin to vernacular that occurred earlier in Europe. There were campaigns against footbinding, concubinage, and other abusive practices toward women. The introduction of Madison Avenue advertising techniques, mass circulation women's magazines, and the influence of America's flapper culture led to a revolution in relations between the sexes. The Modern Girl, as she was called, had unbound feet, wore her hair bobbed or permed, and sported a ''qípáo'' or other fashionable attire. Was she looking for romantic love, or an opportunity to work her feminine wiles and con a sap out of his life savings? Opinion was divided among writers of the time. Society as a whole still idealized the arranged marriage where the focus could be placed on producing children who would worship the ancestors.<ref>Dong, Madeline Y., "Who is afraid of the Chinese Modern Girl?", ''The Modern Girl Around the World: Consumption, Modernity, and Globalization'' (2008).</ref>

China in the 1920s was more than squalid tales of greed, corruption, and betrayal among the militarists in Beijing. This was also the “high modern” period when all things modern and “scientific” were revered. Writers such as Lu Xun abandon the classical style of Confucius in favor of idioms and constructions closer to contemporary spoken Chinese.<ref>Lu Xun's vernacular novel ''The True Story of Ah Q'' was published in 1921.</ref> The shift from Classical Chinese to Mandarin can be compared to the shift from Latin to vernacular that occurred earlier in Europe. There were campaigns against footbinding, concubinage, and other abusive practices toward women. The introduction of Madison Avenue advertising techniques, mass circulation women's magazines, and the influence of America's flapper culture led to a revolution in relations between the sexes. The Modern Girl, as she was called, had unbound feet, wore her hair bobbed or permed, and sported a ''qípáo'' or other fashionable attire. Was she looking for romantic love, or an opportunity to work her feminine wiles and con a sap out of his life savings? Opinion was divided among writers of the time. Society as a whole still idealized the arranged marriage where the focus could be placed on producing children who would worship the ancestors.<ref>Dong, Madeline Y., "Who is afraid of the Chinese Modern Girl?", ''The Modern Girl Around the World: Consumption, Modernity, and Globalization'' (2008).</ref>