Changes

China in the 1920s and early 1930s was more than squalid tales of greed, corruption, and betrayal among militarists. This was also the “high modern” period when all things modern and “scientific” were revered. Writers such as Lu Xun abandon the classical style of Confucius in favor of idioms and constructions closer to contemporary spoken Chinese.<ref>Lu Xun's vernacular novel ''The True Story of Ah Q'' was published in 1921.</ref> The shift from Classical Chinese to Mandarin can be compared to the shift from Latin to vernacular that occurred earlier in Europe. There were campaigns against footbinding, concubinage, and other abusive practices toward women. The introduction of Madison Avenue advertising techniques, mass circulation women's magazines, and the influence of Japanese fashion led to a revolution in relations between the sexes. The Modern Girl, as she was called, had unbound feet, wore her hair bobbed or permed, and sported a ''qípáo'' or other fashionable attire.<ref>The term "modern girl" was popularized by the Japanese novel ''Noami'' (1924) by Tanizaki Jun’ichirō.</ref> Was she looking for romantic love, or an opportunity to work her feminine wiles and con a sap out of his life savings? Opinion was divided among writers of the time. The international city of Shanghai was the epicenter of high modern culture.<ref name=Dong>Dong, Madeline Y., "Who is afraid of the Chinese Modern Girl?", ''The Modern Girl Around the World: Consumption, Modernity, and Globalization'' (2008).</ref> By the early 1930s, the Modern Girl outfit was a uniform. She could be from any class, rich or poor. Even young women in destitute Shanghai districts were somehow able to come up with money for cosmetics and clothing, although their families could barely afford to eat.<ref name="Dong" /> In rural China, cultural norms changed more slowly. The arranged marriage was still cherished, the focus of family remained the production of children who would worship the ancestors, a woman was told to be a "good wife and a wise mother."

China in the 1920s and early 1930s was more than squalid tales of greed, corruption, and betrayal among militarists. This was also the “high modern” period when all things modern and “scientific” were revered. Writers such as Lu Xun abandon the classical style of Confucius in favor of idioms and constructions closer to contemporary spoken Chinese.<ref>Lu Xun's vernacular novel ''The True Story of Ah Q'' was published in 1921.</ref> The shift from Classical Chinese to Mandarin can be compared to the shift from Latin to vernacular that occurred earlier in Europe. There were campaigns against footbinding, concubinage, and other abusive practices toward women. The introduction of Madison Avenue advertising techniques, mass circulation women's magazines, and the influence of Japanese fashion led to a revolution in relations between the sexes. The Modern Girl, as she was called, had unbound feet, wore her hair bobbed or permed, and sported a ''qípáo'' or other fashionable attire.<ref>The term "modern girl" was popularized by the Japanese novel ''Noami'' (1924) by Tanizaki Jun’ichirō.</ref> Was she looking for romantic love, or an opportunity to work her feminine wiles and con a sap out of his life savings? Opinion was divided among writers of the time. The international city of Shanghai was the epicenter of high modern culture.<ref name=Dong>Dong, Madeline Y., "Who is afraid of the Chinese Modern Girl?", ''The Modern Girl Around the World: Consumption, Modernity, and Globalization'' (2008).</ref> By the early 1930s, the Modern Girl outfit was a uniform. She could be from any class, rich or poor. Even young women in destitute Shanghai districts were somehow able to come up with money for cosmetics and clothing, although their families could barely afford to eat.<ref name="Dong" /> In rural China, cultural norms changed more slowly. The arranged marriage was still cherished, the focus of family remained the production of children who would worship the ancestors, a woman was told to be a "good wife and a wise mother."

==Nationalist China: 1925-1971==

===Nationalist China: 1925-1971===

===Nationalist Revolution: 1923-1928===

====Nationalist Revolution: 1923-1928====

Meanwhile, the Soviets built up Sun's Nationalist Party, revived in 1917 in Guangzhou, and supplied it with money and weapons. A "united front" was formed between the Nationalists and the Communists in 1923. The Whampoa Military Academy, established in 1924, trained a new generation of officers to put nation before clique. Sun died in March. In July, the party proclaimed itself the "national government," i.e. an alternative to the Beijing regime. In the Northern Expedition of 1926-1928, [[Chiang Kai-shek]] led the Nationalists to a surprisingly easy victory over the far larger, but now bankrupt, forces of the Beiyang warlords.

Meanwhile, the Soviets built up Sun's Nationalist Party, revived in 1917 in Guangzhou, and supplied it with money and weapons. A "united front" was formed between the Nationalists and the Communists in 1923. The Whampoa Military Academy, established in 1924, trained a new generation of officers to put nation before clique. Sun died in March. In July, the party proclaimed itself the "national government," i.e. an alternative to the Beijing regime. In the Northern Expedition of 1926-1928, [[Chiang Kai-shek]] led the Nationalists to a surprisingly easy victory over the far larger, but now bankrupt, forces of the Beiyang warlords.

Chiang conducted a bloody purge of the Communists when he captured Shanghai in April 1927. Left-wing Nationalists in Wuhan under Wang Jingwei continued the united front until July. But they, too, were finally forced to conduct a purge when the treacherous Communists attempted a coup. The two wings of the Nationalist Party were reunited and the capital was moved to Nanjing in September. The Beijing government dissolved in May 1928 as Chiang's forces approached, and Zhang fled to Manchuria. Furious with his failure to stop Chiang’s advance, the Japanese murdered Zhang in June. The United States recognized Nationalist China in July, the first nation to do.<ref>''[http://books.google.com.vn/books?id=HuB6gPHeP_cC&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false China White Paper: August 1949]'', p. 12.</ref> The U.S. also signed a treaty with Nanjing restoring China's tariff autonomy. In December, Zhang Xueliang, Zhang Zuolin's son, agreed to fly the Nationalist flag in Manchuria and China was reunited, at least nominally.

Chiang conducted a bloody purge of the Communists when he captured Shanghai in April 1927. Left-wing Nationalists in Wuhan under Wang Jingwei continued the united front until July. But they, too, were finally forced to conduct a purge when the treacherous Communists attempted a coup. The two wings of the Nationalist Party were reunited and the capital was moved to Nanjing in September. The Beijing government dissolved in May 1928 as Chiang's forces approached, and Zhang fled to Manchuria. Furious with his failure to stop Chiang’s advance, the Japanese murdered Zhang in June. The United States recognized Nationalist China in July, the first nation to do.<ref>''[http://books.google.com.vn/books?id=HuB6gPHeP_cC&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false China White Paper: August 1949]'', p. 12.</ref> The U.S. also signed a treaty with Nanjing restoring China's tariff autonomy. In December, Zhang Xueliang, Zhang Zuolin's son, agreed to fly the Nationalist flag in Manchuria and China was reunited, at least nominally.

===The Nanjing decade: 1927-1937===

====The Nanjing decade: 1927-1937====

Under the Nationalists, China experienced industrialization and modernization, but there was also conflict between the government in Nanjing, the Communist Party, remnant warlords, and Japan. The warlords were finally brought to heel in 1930 when Chiang put down a brief but bloody revolt in central China. One party rule, described as "political tutelage," was established. In Nationalist ideology, this was explained as a period in which the nation would be educated and prepared for full democracy. The Japanese seized Manchuria in the "Mukden Incident" of 1931. They created a puppet state to administer this region with Puyi as emperor.

Under the Nationalists, China experienced industrialization and modernization, but there was also conflict between the government in Nanjing, the Communist Party, remnant warlords, and Japan. The warlords were finally brought to heel in 1930 when Chiang put down a brief but bloody revolt in central China. One party rule, described as "political tutelage," was established. In Nationalist ideology, this was explained as a period in which the nation would be educated and prepared for full democracy. The Japanese seized Manchuria in the "Mukden Incident" of 1931. They created a puppet state to administer this region with Puyi as emperor.

===The Sino-Japanese War: 1937-1945===

====The Sino-Japanese War: 1937-1945====

Nation-building took a backseat to war with Japan in 1937–1945. Japan occupied the coastal areas and cut off China's access to seaports, while the Nationalists retreated to Chongqing. A puppet state led by Wang was set up in Nanjing. The Chinese cause received much sympathetic attention in the U.S. press, and the [[Flying Tigers]], an aviation squadron, was lionized. So was Chiang's wife, first lady Song Meiling, a U.S.-educated Christian. The Burma Road, and later the Ledo Road, were built to allow US "lend-lease" aid to reach the Chinese army. The Nationalists' Y Force drove back the Japanese in Yunnan during a May–June 1944 offensive, but otherwise military results were disappointing.

Nation-building took a backseat to war with Japan in 1937–1945. Japan occupied the coastal areas and cut off China's access to seaports, while the Nationalists retreated to Chongqing. A puppet state led by Wang was set up in Nanjing. The Chinese cause received much sympathetic attention in the U.S. press, and the [[Flying Tigers]], an aviation squadron, was lionized. So was Chiang's wife, first lady Song Meiling, a U.S.-educated Christian. The Burma Road, and later the Ledo Road, were built to allow US "lend-lease" aid to reach the Chinese army. The Nationalists' Y Force drove back the Japanese in Yunnan during a May–June 1944 offensive, but otherwise military results were disappointing.

===Chinese Civil War: 1946-1949===

====Chinese Civil War: 1946-1949====

After Japan surrendered, the Cold War between the U.S. and Soviet Union led to renewed fighting between the Nationalists and the Communists. The Soviets occupied Manchuria in 1945, where the main Japanese forces and supplies had been maintained. The Chinese Communists were based is the North at this time, while the Nationalists were in Chongqing in the southwest. These two factors gave the Communists the advantage in picking up the spoils of war. The Communist army had been a minor factor during the war with Japan, but its manpower expanded dramatically as soldiers from the puppet armies defected. By late 1947, the military initiative had shifted to the Communists. The Nationalists lost some 550,000 soldiers in the Huaihai campaign of 1948-1949, the climax of the Civil War.

After Japan surrendered, the Cold War between the U.S. and Soviet Union led to renewed fighting between the Nationalists and the Communists. The Soviets occupied Manchuria in 1945, where the main Japanese forces and supplies had been maintained. The Chinese Communists were based is the North at this time, while the Nationalists were in Chongqing in the southwest. These two factors gave the Communists the advantage in picking up the spoils of war. The Communist army had been a minor factor during the war with Japan, but its manpower expanded dramatically as soldiers from the puppet armies defected. By late 1947, the military initiative had shifted to the Communists. The Nationalists lost some 550,000 soldiers in the Huaihai campaign of 1948-1949, the climax of the Civil War.