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The term '''Republic of China''' refers to an era of Chinese history that extended from 1912 until 1949. It was preceded by the [[Qing dynasty]] and followed by the [[People's Republic of China|People's Republic]]. The country was divided among rival warlord cliques in the 1920s, but reunited by the Nationalist Party, or KMT, in 1928. This party had been founded by [[Sun Yat-sen]] and was led by [[Chiang Kai-shek]]. Much of China was occupied by Japan from 1937 until 1945. The Republic was a pivotal era of Chinese history that included modernization of culture and gender roles, economic development, World War II, civil war, and Communist conquest. When the Communists gained control of the mainland in 1949, the Nationalist government fled to [[Taiwan]].

The term '''Republic of China''' refers to an era of Chinese history that extended from 1912 until 1949. It was preceded by the [[Qing dynasty]] and followed by the [[People's Republic of China|People's Republic]]. The country was divided among rival warlord cliques in the 1920s, but reunited by the Nationalist Party, or KMT, in 1928. This party had been founded by [[Sun Yat-sen]] and was led by [[Chiang Kai-shek]]. Much of China was occupied by Japan from 1937 until 1945. The Republic was a pivotal era of Chinese history that included modernization of culture and gender roles, economic development, World War II, civil war, and Communist conquest. When the Communists gained control of the mainland in 1949, the Nationalist government fled to [[Taiwan]].

==History==

==Overthrow of the monarchy==

Chinese soldiers in Wuhan mutinied in October 1911. In a panic, the regent recalled [[Yuan Shikai]], who was supported by the army leaders. On January 1, 1912, a republic was proclaimed in Nanjing with [[Sun Yat-sen]] as president. Sun negotiated with Yuan, who was still premier in Beijing. In March, Yuan and Sun agreed to end the dynasty. Sun resigned as president in favor of Yuan.

Chinese soldiers in Wuhan mutinied in October 1911. In a panic, the regent recalled [[Yuan Shikai]], who was supported by the army leaders. On January 1, 1912, a republic was proclaimed in Nanjing with [[Sun Yat-sen]] as president. Sun negotiated with Yuan, who was still premier in Beijing. In March, Yuan and Sun agreed to end the dynasty. Sun resigned as president in favor of Yuan.

===Yuan Shikai: 1912-1916===

==Yuan Shikai: 1912-1916==

{{Template:History of China}}

{{Template:History of China}}

Sun's faction merged with several other groups to form the Nationalist Party. Nationalist ideology is based on Sun's "Three Principles of the People" (nationalism, democracy, and the livelihood of the people). The party gained a majority in the 1912 parliamentary elections. Backed by the army, Yuan assassinated parliamentary leader Song Jiaoren, dissolved the Nationalist Party, and ruled as a dictator. In 1915, Japan's Twenty-One demands aroused much public opposition. Yuan eventually accepted thirteen of these demands. Yuan proclaimed himself emperor in 1915. Yuan had reorganized the Chinese military for the Qing Empire, so many of the army leaders felt they owed their positions to him. But few looked forward to serving his playboy son, who was heir apparent in Yuan's empire. [[Zhang Zuolin]] was one of a handful of senior officers who supported Yuan's proclamation. In gratitude, Yuan made him military commander for all of Manchuria, a large frontier district in the northeast. At this time, Manchuria was thinly populated. But it would develop quickly in the years that followed. Faced with nearly unanimous opposition, Yuan renounced his imperial pretensions after only a few months.

Sun's faction merged with several other groups to form the Nationalist Party. Nationalist ideology is based on Sun's "Three Principles of the People" (nationalism, democracy, and the livelihood of the people). The party gained a majority in the 1912 parliamentary elections. Backed by the army, Yuan assassinated parliamentary leader Song Jiaoren, dissolved the Nationalist Party, and ruled as a dictator. In 1915, Japan's Twenty-One demands aroused much public opposition. Yuan eventually accepted thirteen of these demands. Yuan proclaimed himself emperor in 1915. Yuan had reorganized the Chinese military for the Qing Empire, so many of the army leaders felt they owed their positions to him. But few looked forward to serving his playboy son, who was heir apparent in Yuan's empire. [[Zhang Zuolin]] was one of a handful of senior officers who supported Yuan's proclamation. In gratitude, Yuan made him military commander for all of Manchuria, a large frontier district in the northeast. At this time, Manchuria was thinly populated. But it would develop quickly in the years that followed. Faced with nearly unanimous opposition, Yuan renounced his imperial pretensions after only a few months.

===The warlord era: 1916-1930===

==The warlord era: 1916-1930==

After Yuan died in 1916, the officers of the Beiyang army divided into rival cliques. Puyi, the former Qing emperor, was briefly restored in 1917. It took eleven days for Premier Duan Qirui, leader of the pro-Japanese Anhui clique, to defeated the imperialists and reinstate the republic. In 1920, the Zhili clique defeated Anhui's forces and Duan was ousted. Zhili warlord Cao Kun gained the presidency in 1923 by paying out bribes of 5,000 silver dollars each to members of the National Assembly. Not reconciled to Zhili's ascendency, the Japanese backed the rival Fengtian clique led by Zhang Zuolin, warlord of Manchuria. In October 1924, a Zhili commander defected, marched into Beijing, and evicted Puyi from the Forbidden City. The Beijing coup soon collapsed, but Zhili had lost its advantage in the war with Fengtian. The fighting in 1924 was far more destructive than earlier disputes among the warlords. In November, the reactionary Duan was made president. This time around, Duan was no longer a clique leader, but rather a stalking horse for Zhang. His appointment pleased the Japanese, but did not go over well in southern or eastern China. Public opinion was fed up with the militarists, as the success of the May Thirtieth protests in 1925 demonstrates. As China's internationally recognized government, Beijing still received the revenue of the Chinese Maritime Customs Service, which had international management. But Manchuria had long been massively overtaxed to support Zhang's adventurism, and the customs revenue was not enough to prevent an economic collapse in 1927–1928.

After Yuan died in 1916, the officers of the Beiyang army divided into rival cliques. Puyi, the former Qing emperor, was briefly restored in 1917. It took eleven days for Premier Duan Qirui, leader of the pro-Japanese Anhui clique, to defeated the imperialists and reinstate the republic. In 1920, the Zhili clique defeated Anhui's forces and Duan was ousted. Zhili warlord Cao Kun gained the presidency in 1923 by paying out bribes of 5,000 silver dollars each to members of the National Assembly. Not reconciled to Zhili's ascendency, the Japanese backed the rival Fengtian clique led by Zhang Zuolin, warlord of Manchuria. In October 1924, a Zhili commander defected, marched into Beijing, and evicted Puyi from the Forbidden City. The Beijing coup soon collapsed, but Zhili had lost its advantage in the war with Fengtian. The fighting in 1924 was far more destructive than earlier disputes among the warlords. In November, the reactionary Duan was made president. This time around, Duan was no longer a clique leader, but rather a stalking horse for Zhang. His appointment pleased the Japanese, but did not go over well in southern or eastern China. Public opinion was fed up with the militarists, as the success of the May Thirtieth protests in 1925 demonstrates. As China's internationally recognized government, Beijing still received the revenue of the Chinese Maritime Customs Service, which had international management. But Manchuria had long been massively overtaxed to support Zhang's adventurism, and the customs revenue was not enough to prevent an economic collapse in 1927–1928.

===Culture and fashion===

==Culture and fashion==

China in the 1920s and early 1930s was more than squalid tales of greed, corruption, and betrayal among the militarists. This was also the “high modern” period when all things modern and “scientific” were revered. Writers such as Lu Xun abandoned the classical style of Confucius in favor of idioms and constructions closer to contemporary spoken Chinese.<ref>Lu Xun's vernacular novel ''The True Story of Ah Q'' was published in 1921.</ref> The shift from Classical Chinese to Mandarin can be compared to the shift from Latin to vernacular that occurred earlier in Europe. There were campaigns against footbinding, concubinage, and other abusive practices toward women. By the 1930s, the politically-oriented "New Woman" had been displaced by the fashion-conscious "Modern Girl."<ref>Ma, Yuxin, ''[http://books.google.de/books?id=TiVg_CP4rMAC&dq= Women Journalists and Feminism in China, 1898-1937]'' (2010). The term "modern girl" was popularized by the Japanese novel ''Noami'' (1924) by Tanizaki Jun’ichirō.</ref> The product of mass advertising, women's magazines, and the influence of Japanese fashion, she had unbound feet, wore her hair bobbed or permed, and sported a tight-fitting ''qípáo''.<ref name=Dong>Dong, Madeline Y., "Who is afraid of the Chinese Modern Girl?", ''The Modern Girl Around the World: Consumption, Modernity, and Globalization'' (2008).</ref> Was she looking for romantic love, or an opportunity to work her feminine wiles and con a sap out of his life savings? Opinion was divided among writers of the time. The international city of Shanghai was the epicenter of high modern culture.<ref name="Dong" /> In the early 1930s, the Modern Girl outfit grew in popularity until it was practically a uniform. She could be from any class, rich or poor. Even young women in destitute Shanghai districts were somehow able to come up with money for cosmetics and clothing, although their families could barely afford to eat.<ref name="Dong" /> In rural China, cultural norms changed more slowly. The arranged marriage was still cherished, the focus of family remained the production of children who would worship the ancestors, a woman was told to be a "good wife and a wise mother."

China in the 1920s and early 1930s was more than squalid tales of greed, corruption, and betrayal among the militarists. This was also the “high modern” period when all things modern and “scientific” were revered. Writers such as Lu Xun abandoned the classical style of Confucius in favor of idioms and constructions closer to contemporary spoken Chinese.<ref>Lu Xun's vernacular novel ''The True Story of Ah Q'' was published in 1921.</ref> The shift from Classical Chinese to Mandarin can be compared to the shift from Latin to vernacular that occurred earlier in Europe. There were campaigns against footbinding, concubinage, and other abusive practices toward women. By the 1930s, the politically-oriented "New Woman" had been displaced by the fashion-conscious "Modern Girl."<ref>Ma, Yuxin, ''[http://books.google.de/books?id=TiVg_CP4rMAC&dq= Women Journalists and Feminism in China, 1898-1937]'' (2010). The term "modern girl" was popularized by the Japanese novel ''Noami'' (1924) by Tanizaki Jun’ichirō.</ref> The product of mass advertising, women's magazines, and the influence of Japanese fashion, she had unbound feet, wore her hair bobbed or permed, and sported a tight-fitting ''qípáo''.<ref name=Dong>Dong, Madeline Y., "Who is afraid of the Chinese Modern Girl?", ''The Modern Girl Around the World: Consumption, Modernity, and Globalization'' (2008).</ref> Was she looking for romantic love, or an opportunity to work her feminine wiles and con a sap out of his life savings? Opinion was divided among writers of the time. The international city of Shanghai was the epicenter of high modern culture.<ref name="Dong" /> In the early 1930s, the Modern Girl outfit grew in popularity until it was practically a uniform. She could be from any class, rich or poor. Even young women in destitute Shanghai districts were somehow able to come up with money for cosmetics and clothing, although their families could barely afford to eat.<ref name="Dong" /> In rural China, cultural norms changed more slowly. The arranged marriage was still cherished, the focus of family remained the production of children who would worship the ancestors, a woman was told to be a "good wife and a wise mother."

===Nationalist China: 1925-1971===

==Nationalist China: 1925-1971==

====Nationalist Revolution: 1923-1928====

===Nationalist Revolution: 1923-1928===

Meanwhile, the Soviets built up Sun's Nationalist Party, revived in 1917 in Guangzhou, and supplied it with money and weapons. A "united front" was formed between the Nationalists and the Communists in 1923. The Whampoa Military Academy, established in 1924, trained a new generation of officers to put nation before clique. Sun died in March. In July, the party proclaimed itself the "national government," i.e. an alternative to the Beijing regime. In the Northern Expedition of 1926-1928, [[Chiang Kai-shek]] led the Nationalists to a surprisingly easy victory over the far larger, but now bankrupt, forces of the Beiyang warlords.

Meanwhile, the Soviets built up Sun's Nationalist Party, revived in 1917 in Guangzhou, and supplied it with money and weapons. A "united front" was formed between the Nationalists and the Communists in 1923. The Whampoa Military Academy, established in 1924, trained a new generation of officers to put nation before clique. Sun died in March. In July, the party proclaimed itself the "national government," i.e. an alternative to the Beijing regime. In the Northern Expedition of 1926-1928, [[Chiang Kai-shek]] led the Nationalists to a surprisingly easy victory over the far larger, but now bankrupt, forces of the Beiyang warlords.

Chiang conducted a bloody purge of the Communists when he captured Shanghai in April 1927. Left-wing Nationalists in Wuhan under Wang Jingwei continued the united front until July. But they, too, were finally forced to conduct a purge when the treacherous Communists attempted a coup. The two wings of the Nationalist Party were reunited and the capital was moved to Nanjing in September. The Beijing government dissolved in May 1928 as Chiang's forces approached, and Zhang fled to Manchuria. Furious with his failure to stop Chiang’s advance, the Japanese murdered Zhang in June. The United States recognized Nationalist China in July, the first nation to do.<ref>''[http://books.google.com.vn/books?id=HuB6gPHeP_cC&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false China White Paper: August 1949]'', p. 12.</ref> The U.S. also signed a treaty with Nanjing restoring China's tariff autonomy. In December, Zhang Xueliang, Zhang Zuolin's son, agreed to fly the Nationalist flag in Manchuria and China was reunited, at least nominally.

Chiang conducted a bloody purge of the Communists when he captured Shanghai in April 1927. Left-wing Nationalists in Wuhan under Wang Jingwei continued the united front until July. But they, too, were finally forced to conduct a purge when the treacherous Communists attempted a coup. The two wings of the Nationalist Party were reunited and the capital was moved to Nanjing in September. The Beijing government dissolved in May 1928 as Chiang's forces approached, and Zhang fled to Manchuria. Furious with his failure to stop Chiang’s advance, the Japanese murdered Zhang in June. The United States recognized Nationalist China in July, the first nation to do.<ref>''[http://books.google.com.vn/books?id=HuB6gPHeP_cC&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false China White Paper: August 1949]'', p. 12.</ref> The U.S. also signed a treaty with Nanjing restoring China's tariff autonomy. In December, Zhang Xueliang, Zhang Zuolin's son, agreed to fly the Nationalist flag in Manchuria and China was reunited, at least nominally.

====The Nanjing decade: 1927-1937====

===The Nanjing decade: 1927-1937===

Under the Nationalists, China experienced industrialization and modernization, but there was also conflict between the government in Nanjing, the Communist Party, remnant warlords, and Japan. The warlords were finally brought to heel in 1930 when Chiang put down a brief but bloody revolt in central China. One party rule, described as "political tutelage," was established. In Nationalist ideology, this was explained as a period in which the nation would be educated and prepared for full democracy. The Japanese seized Manchuria in the "Mukden Incident" of 1931. They created a puppet state to administer this region with Puyi as emperor. In May 1933, General Hans von Seeckt arrived in Shanghai and submitted a plan to reorganize the Chinese army with German advisers and weapons. The Nazis saw Nationalist China as a fellow anti-Communist state. Economic and military cooperation continued even after the "anti-Comintern Pact" was concluded with Japan in 1936. In 1935, Seeckt was replaced by General Alexander von Falkenhausen. Both generals advised a drastic cut in the size of the army and higher standards of training. The Chinese were not anxious to adopt such reforms. A commander with fewer soldiers lost status and political clout. Regardless of the quality of training, Whampao had a track record of producing officers loyal to Chiang. However, an elite corps of 80,000 soldiers was recruited and trained to German standards. A "Three Year Plan" was adopted in 1936 to turn China into an industrial powerhouse with German loans and German-educated technocrats. Leftists asked why Chiang focused on the Communists instead of the Japanese occupying Manchuria, but an anti-Japanese policy would have undermined the rationale for Sino-German collaboration.

Under the Nationalists, China experienced industrialization and modernization, but there was also conflict between the government in Nanjing, the Communist Party, remnant warlords, and Japan. The warlords were finally brought to heel in 1930 when Chiang put down a brief but bloody revolt in central China. One party rule, described as "political tutelage," was established. In Nationalist ideology, this was explained as a period in which the nation would be educated and prepared for full democracy. The Japanese seized Manchuria in the "Mukden Incident" of 1931. They created a puppet state to administer this region with Puyi as emperor. In May 1933, General Hans von Seeckt arrived in Shanghai and submitted a plan to reorganize the Chinese army with German advisers and weapons. The Nazis saw Nationalist China as a fellow anti-Communist state. Economic and military cooperation continued even after the "anti-Comintern Pact" was concluded with Japan in 1936. In 1935, Seeckt was replaced by General Alexander von Falkenhausen. Both generals advised a drastic cut in the size of the army and higher standards of training. The Chinese were not anxious to adopt such reforms. A commander with fewer soldiers lost status and political clout. Regardless of the quality of training, Whampao had a track record of producing officers loyal to Chiang. However, an elite corps of 80,000 soldiers was recruited and trained to German standards. A "Three Year Plan" was adopted in 1936 to turn China into an industrial powerhouse with German loans and German-educated technocrats. Leftists asked why Chiang focused on the Communists instead of the Japanese occupying Manchuria, but an anti-Japanese policy would have undermined the rationale for Sino-German collaboration.

====The Sino-Japanese War: 1937-1945====

===The Sino-Japanese War: 1937-1945===

A determined campaign of assassination and coup attempts by ultranationalist junior officers left the Japanese leadership cowed by 1936. The budget for fiscal year 1937 proposed a 40 percent increase in spending, and a war was required to justify this increase to the Japanese public. Despite the alliance with Germany, the army leaders had no stomach for war with the Soviets. Instead, they suggested war with China, whose army was not nearly as formidable. The Nationalists and the Communists responded to the threat by forming a "Second United Front" in December 1936. All the same, China was ill-prepared when the Japanese finally launched their offensive in July 1937. Japan quickly overran a vast region and cut off China's access to seaports. The Nationalists retreated to Chongqing in the southwest, the Communists to Yan'an in the northwest. A puppet state led by Wang was set up in Nanjing in 1940.

A determined campaign of assassination and coup attempts by ultranationalist junior officers left the Japanese leadership cowed by 1936. The budget for fiscal year 1937 proposed a 40 percent increase in spending, and a war was required to justify this increase to the Japanese public. Despite the alliance with Germany, the army leaders had no stomach for war with the Soviets. Instead, they suggested war with China, whose army was not nearly as formidable. The Nationalists and the Communists responded to the threat by forming a "Second United Front" in December 1936. All the same, China was ill-prepared when the Japanese finally launched their offensive in July 1937. Japan quickly overran a vast region and cut off China's access to seaports. The Nationalists retreated to Chongqing in the southwest, the Communists to Yan'an in the northwest. A puppet state led by Wang was set up in Nanjing in 1940.

The war ended victoriously all the same. Japan surrendered in August 1945 after a U.S. submarine campaign in the Pacific cut off the country's fuel and other supplies, and atomic bombs were dropped on two Japanese cities. Americans were left with sharply divided views of China. Stilwell's rivalry with Chiang and Chennault was a prelude to years of poisonous political dispute.

The war ended victoriously all the same. Japan surrendered in August 1945 after a U.S. submarine campaign in the Pacific cut off the country's fuel and other supplies, and atomic bombs were dropped on two Japanese cities. Americans were left with sharply divided views of China. Stilwell's rivalry with Chiang and Chennault was a prelude to years of poisonous political dispute.

====Chinese Civil War: 1946-1949====

===Chinese Civil War: 1946-1949===

The Soviet had supported the Nationalists in the war against Japan and maintained a friendly attitude even after Japan surrendered. They signed a "Treaty of Friendship and Alliance" concerning the status of Mongolia in August 1945. But as the Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet Union developed, this policy was reversed. The Soviets occupied Manchuria in August 1945, where the main Japanese forces and supplies had been maintained. This region was systematically looted, with entire factories transported to Russia. The Chinese Communists were based is the North at this time, while the Nationalists were in Chongqing in the southwest. These two factors gave the Communists the advantage in picking up the spoils of war. The Communist army had been a minor factor during the war with Japan, but its manpower expanded dramatically as soldiers from the puppet armies defected. Hostilities between the Nationalists and the Communists resumed in March 1946. By late 1947, the military initiative had shifted to the Communists. The Nationalists lost some 550,000 soldiers in the Huaihai campaign of 1948-1949, the climax of the war.

The Soviet had supported the Nationalists in the war against Japan and maintained a friendly attitude even after Japan surrendered. They signed a "Treaty of Friendship and Alliance" concerning the status of Mongolia in August 1945. But as the Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet Union developed, this policy was reversed. The Soviets occupied Manchuria in August 1945, where the main Japanese forces and supplies had been maintained. This region was systematically looted, with entire factories transported to Russia. The Chinese Communists were based is the North at this time, while the Nationalists were in Chongqing in the southwest. These two factors gave the Communists the advantage in picking up the spoils of war. The Communist army had been a minor factor during the war with Japan, but its manpower expanded dramatically as soldiers from the puppet armies defected. Hostilities between the Nationalists and the Communists resumed in March 1946. By late 1947, the military initiative had shifted to the Communists. The Nationalists lost some 550,000 soldiers in the Huaihai campaign of 1948-1949, the climax of the war.

Nationalist resistance collapsed in January 1949. Beijing fell without a fight and refugees began fleeing to Taiwan. By the end of the year, 600,000 soldiers and 2 million civilians had fled from the mainland. The government fled from Nanjing to Guangzhou in January. In February, China's gold reserves were transferred to Taiwan. Nanjing fell in April, Shanghai in May. Neither city offered resistance. At Tiananmen Square in Beijing, Communist leader [[Mao Zedong]] proclaimed the People's Republic on October 1, 1949. Guangzhou fell on October 15.

Nationalist resistance collapsed in January 1949. Beijing fell without a fight and refugees began fleeing to Taiwan. By the end of the year, 600,000 soldiers and 2 million civilians had fled from the mainland. The government fled from Nanjing to Guangzhou in January. In February, China's gold reserves were transferred to Taiwan. Nanjing fell in April, Shanghai in May. Neither city offered resistance. At Tiananmen Square in Beijing, Communist leader [[Mao Zedong]] proclaimed the People's Republic on October 1, 1949. Guangzhou fell on October 15.

====Nationalists on Taiwan: 1949-present====

===Nationalists on Taiwan: 1949-present===

On December 10, 1949, Chiang flew from Chengdu, the last Nationalist bastion on the mainland, to Taiwan and proclaimed Taipei a provisional capital. Despite its vastly reduced territory, Chiang's regime continued to receive diplomatic recognition from the United Nations and from most non-Communist states. The U.N. Security Council has five permanent seats, one of which is assigned to the Republic of China. In 1971, Taipei was expelled from the U.N. and the ROC seat was reassigned to Beijing.

On December 10, 1949, Chiang flew from Chengdu, the last Nationalist bastion on the mainland, to Taiwan and proclaimed Taipei a provisional capital. Despite its vastly reduced territory, Chiang's regime continued to receive diplomatic recognition from the United Nations and from most non-Communist states. The U.N. Security Council has five permanent seats, one of which is assigned to the Republic of China. In 1971, Taipei was expelled from the U.N. and the ROC seat was reassigned to Beijing.