Changes

Nations built up massive military might, and bragged about it.  Germany sought to have the largest navy to compete with Britain’s claim that it had the best navy.  Rulers found it popular to have a huge "standing army" (army in peacetime) that could be mobilized at any time.

Nations built up massive military might, and bragged about it.  Germany sought to have the largest navy to compete with Britain’s claim that it had the best navy.  Rulers found it popular to have a huge "standing army" (army in peacetime) that could be mobilized at any time.

In sum, at the turn of the century there were increased rivalries among European nations for three reasons:  nationalism, militarism and imperialism.  Keep those three issues in mind throughout this lecture.

In sum, at the turn of the century there were increased rivalries among European nations for three reasons:  '''''nationalism, militarism and imperialism'''''.  Keep those three issues in mind throughout this lecture.

== Alliances ==

== Alliances ==

New alliances were formed in the late 1800s, some of them kept secret at the time.  German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck entered into the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879 as a way of protecting those countries against possible aggression by France.  Italy joined this alliance against France in 1882, making it the '''Triple Alliance'''.

New alliances were formed in the late 1800s, some of them kept secret at the time.  German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck entered into the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879 as a way of protecting those countries against possible aggression by France.  Italy joined this alliance against France in 1882, making it the '''Triple Alliance'''.

Bismarck was a very skilled statesman and diplomat, one of the most influential in all of world history.  He is credited with unifying Germany as a nation in the 1860s (ironically, while the United States was torn by the Civil War).  Bismarck even arranged for wars against other nations (first against Denmark, then against Austria and finally against France) in order to help unify the German people against outside enemies.  Ultimately unified as a nation in 1871, Germany made Bismarck its first Chancellor, whereupon he consolidated Germany’s power in Europe by entering into the above alliances with other countries.  After nearly two decades of rule, Bismarck was eventually forced to resign in 1890 because of a policy dispute with Wilhelm II, who as the “Kaiser” or Caesar of Germany wanted more power for himself.

Bismarck was a very skilled statesman and diplomat, one of the most influential in all of world history.  He is credited with unifying Germany as a nation in the 1860s (ironically, while the United States was torn by the Civil War).  Bismarck even arranged for wars against other nations (first against Denmark, then against Austria and finally against France) in order to help unify the German people against outside enemies.  Ultimately unified as a nation in 1871, Germany made Bismarck its first Chancellor, whereupon he consolidated Germany’s power in Europe by entering into the above alliances with other countries.  After nearly two decades of rule, Bismarck was eventually forced to resign in 1890 because of a policy dispute with Wilhelm II, who as the “Kaiser” (or Caesar ) of Germany wanted more power for himself.

Kaiser Wilhelm II immediately ended Germany’s alliance with Russia, which caused Russia to form an alliance with France in 1891.  In 1907 Great Britain, feeling threatened by Germany’s growing navy, joined France and Russia in their alliance, or entente, and this became the '''Triple Entente'''.  Under the terms of this alliance, Britain was not expressly required to defend France and Russia, but Britain did promise not to fight against them.

Kaiser Wilhelm II immediately ended Germany’s alliance with Russia, which caused Russia to form an alliance with France in 1891.  In 1907 Great Britain, feeling threatened by Germany’s growing navy, joined France and Russia in their alliance, or entente, and this became the '''Triple Entente'''.  Under the terms of this alliance, Britain was not expressly required to defend France and Russia, but Britain did promise not to fight against them.

== Igniting World War I ==

== Igniting World War I ==

It was only a matter of time before something would ignite a conflict and cause one alliance to fight against the other.  The Balkans in Eastern Europe was where the war began.  The Ottoman empire had declined, leaving a power vacuum that European nations tried to fill.  The Slavs in Serbia, with Russian support, wanted to unite all the Slavs in the Balkans.  Austria-Hungary, which has a very small Slavic population, opposed this.  Instead, Austria-Hungary wanted to control the Balkans rather than Russia.

It was only a matter of time before something would ignite a conflict and cause one alliance to fight against the other.  The Balkans in Eastern Europe was where the war began.  The Ottoman empire had declined, leaving a power vacuum that European nations tried to fill.  The Slavs in Serbia, with Russian support, wanted to unite all the Slavs in the Balkans.  Austria-Hungary, which has a very small Slavic population, opposed this.  Instead, Austria-Hungary wanted to control the Balkans.

In 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia (and Herzogovina), a region adjacent to its southeast (and east of Italy across the Adriatic Sea).  But Bosnia was mostly Slavic while Austria was not, and this greatly angered the Slavic Serbia, which wanted to take Bosnia back.  Why did Austria act at this particular time?  Because there was a rebellion by the Committee of Union and Progress (the so-called “Young Turks”) that overthrew the Ottoman government, and the Austrian foreign minister Baron Aloys von Aerenthal saw a rare opportunity to act.  He knew that Russia, which was Austria’s main adversary, was weak at this time due to its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and by an internal revolution in 1905.

In 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia (and Herzogovina), a region adjacent to its southeast (and east of Italy across the Adriatic Sea).  But Bosnia was mostly Slavic while Austria was not, and this greatly angered the Slavic Serbia, which wanted to take Bosnia back.  Why did Austria act at this particular time?  Because there was a rebellion by the Committee of Union and Progress (the so-called “Young Turks”) that overthrew the Ottoman government, and the Austrian foreign minister Baron Aloys von Aerenthal saw a rare opportunity to act.  He knew that Russia, which was Austria’s main adversary, was weak at this time due to its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and an internal revolution in 1905.

In January 1909, the chief of staff of the Austrian army approached his German counterpart and asked what Germany would do if Austria next invaded Serbia and caused Russia to intervene on behalf of Serbia.  Despite the original defensive nature of the Austria-German alliance, the Germany army officer said Germany would back Austria and Germany would also invade France because it was Russia’s ally.  This is how it played out a few years later in the summer of 1914, as the struggle in the Balkans exploded into the First World War.

In January 1909, the chief of staff of the Austrian army approached his German counterpart and asked what Germany would do if Austria next invaded Serbia and caused Russia to intervene on behalf of Serbia.  Despite the original defensive nature of the Austria-German alliance, the Germany army officer said Germany would back Austria and Germany would also invade France because it was Russia’s ally.  This is how it played out a few years later in the summer of 1914, as the struggle in the Balkans exploded into the First World War.

Austria was obviously furious about the assassination and, with Germany’s support, demanded that Serbia end all resistance to Austria.  Serbia agreed to some of the demands and offered to submit other demands to arbitration (decision) by an impartial international panel.  But Austria would not wait; on July 28, 1914, it declared war against Serbia.  Russian responded by mobilizing its army towards Austria and Germany.

Austria was obviously furious about the assassination and, with Germany’s support, demanded that Serbia end all resistance to Austria.  Serbia agreed to some of the demands and offered to submit other demands to arbitration (decision) by an impartial international panel.  But Austria would not wait; on July 28, 1914, it declared war against Serbia.  Russian responded by mobilizing its army towards Austria and Germany.

This triggered the alliances.  Germany responded to Russia’s mobilization of troops by declaring war on Russia four days later (on August 1st) and then Germany declared war on France another two days later (on August 3rd).  Germany decided to invade and defeat France first before it had to fight Russia, and thereby avoid fighting a war on two fronts at the same time.  This was the Schlieffen Plan to avoid a two-front war.

This triggered the alliances.  Germany responded to Russia’s mobilization of troops by declaring war on Russia four days later (on August 1st) and then Germany declared war on France another two days later (on August 3rd).  Germany decided to invade and defeat France first before it had to fight Russia, and thereby avoid fighting a war on two fronts at the same time.  This was the "Schlieffen Plan" to avoid a two-front war.

But Belgium, which was neutral, would not allow Germany to pass through its borders to invade France.  So Germany invaded and defeated Belgium.  Britain had a relationship with Belgium and Britain declared war on Germany on August 4, 1914.

But Belgium, which was neutral, would not allow Germany to pass through its borders to invade France.  So Germany invaded and defeated Belgium.  Britain had a relationship with Belgium and Britain declared war on Germany on August 4, 1914.

In summary, in a mere week an isolated act of violence between Austria and Serbia (sparked by a teenager) escalated into a world war between Britain, France and Russia (the Allied Powers) and Germany and Austria-Hungary (the Central Powers).  Italy left the German side when it invaded the neutral Belgium, and later Italy joined the Allied Powers along with Japan.  The Ottoman empire and Bulgaria eventually joined the Central Powers.

In summary, in a mere week an isolated act of violence between Austria and Serbia (sparked by a teenager) escalated into a world war between Britain, France and Russia (the Allied Powers) and Germany and Austria-Hungary (the Central Powers).  Italy left the German side when it invaded the neutral Belgium, and later Italy joined the Allied Powers along with Japan.  The Ottoman empire and Bulgaria eventually joined the Central Powers.

=== Initial Stages of the War ===

=== Initial Stages of the Great War ===

The fighting in the “Great War,” as it was called then (it is now called World War I), was savage and brutal.  Army casualties totaled more than 37 million people, and there were another 10 million in civilian deaths.  For weeks armies fought in trenches (deep, long ditches in the ground), spending day after day trying to kill their opponents lined up in an opposite trench several hundred feet away.  This was known as trench warfare.  Movement of ten or twenty feet in advance of a trench was a big success.  Barbed wire marked off an area known as “no man’s land” between the two trenches, where anyone who went into this area would be shot on sight.  Also, a deadly flu virus spread among the soldiers and infected the world, killing millions more.  The late 1910s was a dreadful time for the world.

The fighting in the “Great War,” as it was called then (it is now called World War I), was savage and brutal.  Army casualties totaled more than 37 million people, and there were another 10 million civilian deaths.  For weeks armies fought in trenches (deep, long ditches in the ground), spending day after day trying to kill their opponents lined up in an opposite trench several hundred feet away.  This was known as trench warfare.  Movement of ten or twenty feet in advance of a trench was a big success.  Barbed wire marked off an area known as “no man’s land” between the two trenches, where anyone who went into this area would be shot on sight.  Also, a deadly flu virus spread among the soldiers and infected the world, killing millions more.  The late 1910s was a dreadful time.

At the end of the war, the nations signed a peace agreement that was so misguided that it caused another great war to occur (World War II).  So this World War I was bad news all around.  Nothing was achieved by it. World War I was even pathetic in terms of military strategy.  The first year and a half (1914-15) is known as “Entrenchment,” during which there were terrible casualties without either side gaining the upper hand.  The next year, 1916, is known as “Continued Stalemate.”  Get the idea?  The following year, 1917, is known for the entrance by the United States and the withdrawal by Russia due to its communist revolution.  In 1918 more nations withdrew from the war, and the major remaining nations of Britain, France, Germany and the United States ended the war with an armistice in November of that year.

At the end of the war, the nations signed a peace agreement that was so misguided that it caused another great war to occur (World War II).  So this World War I was bad news all around.  Nothing was achieved by it. World War I was even pathetic in terms of military strategy.  The first year and a half (1914-15) is known as “Entrenchment,” during which there were terrible casualties without either side gaining the upper hand.  The next year, 1916, is known as “Continued Stalemate.”  Get the idea?  The following year, 1917, is known for the entrance by the United States and the withdrawal by Russia due to its communist revolution.  In 1918 more nations withdrew from the war, and the major remaining nations of Britain, France, Germany and the United States ended the war with an armistice in November of that year.

The colonies were not much help to the European powers, and attempting to use them for World War I left some bitterness.  For example, Britain drew upon its colonies of Canada, Australia and New Zealand to supply a failed Gallipoli campaign, which sought to forge a supply line to Russia.  But these three colonies suffered heavy losses that left them bitter about Britain, and desirous of independence from the British empire.

The colonies were not much help to the European powers, and attempting to use them for World War I left some bitterness.  For example, Britain drew upon its colonies of Canada, Australia and New Zealand to supply a failed Gallipoli campaign, which sought to forge a supply line to Russia.  But these three colonies suffered heavy losses that left them bitter about Britain, and desirous of independence from the British empire.

Britain was successful in enlisting troops from the colonies of Egypt, India, Australia and New Zealand to defeat the weakened Ottomans.  An Arab revolt against the Turks (German allies) was led by a British soldier named T. E. (Thomas Edward) Lawrence, known as “Lawrence of Arabia.”  His guerrilla warfare campaign against the Turks kept large numbers of troops tied up trying to suppress it, and it helped the British capture Aqaba and Damascus.  Meanwhile, the Indian Mohandas Gandhi encouraged support of the British in the war as a way of building good will towards the Indian cause for independence.  French colonies also lent some support to its efforts.

Britain was successful in enlisting troops from the colonies of Egypt, India, Australia and New Zealand to defeat the weakened Ottomans.  An Arab revolt against the Turks (German allies) was led by a British soldier named T. E. (Thomas Edward) Lawrence, known as “Lawrence of Arabia.”  His guerrilla warfare campaign against the Turks kept large numbers of troops tied up trying to suppress it, and it helped the British capture Aqaba and Damascus.  Meanwhile, the Indian Mohandas Gandhi encouraged support of the British in the war as a way of building goodwill towards the Indian cause for independence.  French colonies also lent some support to its efforts.

The German colonies could not help the Germans, because these colonies were captured by Allied Powers.

The German colonies could not help the Germans, because these colonies were captured by Allied Powers.

With nearly all the young European men sent to battle, the women filled the factory jobs previously filled by men.  Women tested munitions in factories, for example, and performed other strenuous jobs.  Historians cite this shift in the workforce as being instrumental in changing attitudes about the proper role for women in society.

With nearly all the young European men sent to battle, the women filled the factory jobs previously filled by men.  Women tested munitions in factories, for example, and performed other strenuous jobs.  Historians cite this shift in the workforce as being instrumental in changing attitudes about the proper role for women in society.

World War I was so deadly that it killed an entire generation of men.  In 1918, a deadly strain of the influenza called the “Spanish flu” killed 20 million people, including both civilians and soldiers.  In addition another 9 million soldiers were killed in battle, and 21 million injured.  Hundreds of thousands of Christian Armenians were slaughtered by the Ottoman Turks as a “genocide” or racial cleansing.  The Ottomans also deported nearly two million Armenians in retaliation for their support of the Allies.

World War I was so deadly that it killed an entire generation of men.  In 1918, a fatal strain of the influenza called the “Spanish flu” killed 20 million people, including both civilians and soldiers.  In addition another 9 million soldiers were killed in battle, and 21 million injured.  Hundreds of thousands of Christian Armenians were slaughtered by the Ottoman Turks as a “genocide” or racial cleansing.  The Ottomans also deported nearly two million Armenians in retaliation for their support of the Allies.

As great as this cost of war was, the irony was that the war settled nothing and simply set the stage for another terrible world war about twenty years later.  The Communist Revolution, which threatened the entire world for most of the 1900s, also occurred during World War I.

As great as this cost of war was, the irony was that the war settled nothing and simply set the stage for another terrible world war about twenty years later.  The Communist Revolution, which threatened the entire world for most of the 1900s, also occurred during World War I.

====First Battle of Marne====

====First Battle of Marne====

[[Image:Schlieffen Plan.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Germany's Schieffen Plan, foiled by the First Battle of Marne]]

[[Image:Schlieffen Plan.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Germany's Schieffen Plan, foiled by the First Battle of Marne]]

The First Battle of the Marne was a key conflict from September 6-12, 1914, which halted the Germany effort to capture France quickly and forced Germany to fight on two fronts afterward.  Known to the French as the "Miracle of Marne," this battle saved the nation and Paris from German capture near the outset of the war.  But the French losses were horrific: 250,000 men.  German losses were similar.  Still it was a victory for the Allied Powers in halting the German advance on the Western Front and thwarting the German Schlieffen Plan for winning the War.<ref>http://www.firstworldwar.com/features/plans.htm</ref>  Russia, meanwhile, was not doing as well holding its own on the Eastern Front.<ref>Though tenacious in battle, Russia was not as industrialized as the West, and as a result Russia's military was inferior.</ref>

The First Battle of the Marne was a key conflict from September 6-12, 1914, which halted the German effort to capture France quickly and forced Germany to fight on two fronts afterward.  Known to the French as the "Miracle of Marne," this battle saved the nation and Paris from German capture near the outset of the war.  But the French losses were horrific: 250,000 men.  German losses were similar.  Still it was a victory for the Allied Powers in halting the German advance on the Western Front and thwarting the German Schlieffen Plan for winning the War.<ref>http://www.firstworldwar.com/features/plans.htm</ref>  Russia, meanwhile, was not doing as well holding its own on the Eastern Front.<ref>Though tenacious in battle, Russia was not as industrialized as the West, and as a result Russia's military was inferior.</ref>

====Gallipoli====

====Gallipoli====

====Verdun====

====Verdun====

In 1916, the Battle of Verdun between the French and Germans was perhaps the most demanding battle in world history.  The struggle started when the Germans attacked Verdun, France, a city surrounded by a ring of underground forts.  At least 220,000 soldiers died, and at least 480,000 were wounded in this 10-month struggle that accomplished nothing.  At the end the front lines were in nearly the same locations as at the beginning.

In 1916, the Battle of Verdun between the French and Germans was perhaps the most demanding battle in all of world history.  The struggle started when the Germans attacked Verdun, France, a city surrounded by a ring of underground forts.  At least 220,000 soldiers died, and at least 480,000 were wounded in this 10-month struggle that accomplished nothing.  At the end the front lines were in nearly the same locations as at the beginning.

====Somme====

====Somme====

===The United States===

===The United States===

For three years (1914-1916) the United States attempted to stay out of the war.  Europe had been having internal fights since the ancient time of the Greek empire, and the United States had friends on both sides of World War I.  Many Americans were of German descent and sympathetic to the Central Powers, although most Americans were of British descent then (and now).  If the United States were to intervene, then it was clear that it would enter the war on the side of the British, but most Americans were initially against getting involved.

For three years (1914-1916) the United States stayed out of the war.  Europe had been having internal fights since the ancient time of the Greek empire, and the United States had friends on both sides of World War I.  Many Americans were of German descent and sympathetic to the Central Powers, although most Americans were of British descent then (and now).  If the United States were to intervene, then it was clear that it would enter the war on the side of the British, but most Americans were initially against getting involved.

The Germans were using submarines to patrol the Atlantic in order to intercept British ships.  The German submarine was known as the “U-boat”, and it terrorized everyone.  In 1915, still relatively early in the war, a U-boat sunk a massive British passenger liner known as the Lusitania.  This one sinking killed 1,198 people, including 128 U.S. citizens.  A member of the prominent Vanderbilt family, known for its railroad empire, was among the fatalities.  The overall number of casualties was only a few hundred less than those who died on the Titanic when it hit an iceberg in 1912.

The Germans were using submarines to patrol the Atlantic in order to intercept British ships.  The German submarine was known as the “U-boat”, and it terrorized everyone.  In 1915, still relatively early in the war, a U-boat sunk a massive British passenger liner known as the Lusitania.  This one sinking killed 1,198 people, including 128 U.S. citizens.  A member of the prominent Vanderbilt family, known for its railroad empire, was among the fatalities.  The overall number of casualties was only a few hundred less than those who died on the Titanic when it hit an iceberg in 1912.