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'''Quantum Mechanics'''

'''Quantum Mechanics'''

The most notable 20th century accomplishment in science was the discovery of quantum mechanics by European physicists.  This remarkable discovery of subatomic behavior ultimately produced about a dozen Nobel Prizes and is the basis for the entire computer industry today.  The leading physicists included Werner Heisenberg, Max Born and Max Planck of Germany, Enrico Fermi of Italy, Niels Bohr of Denmark, Erwin Schrödinger of Austria and Paul Dirac of England.  Perhaps the most brilliant of the group was Enrico Fermi, who was a devout Christian extraordinary in both his experimental and theoretical accomplishments.   

The most notable 20th century accomplishment in science was the discovery of quantum mechanics by European physicists.  This remarkable discovery of subatomic behavior ultimately produced about a dozen Nobel Prizes and is the basis for the entire computer industry today.  The leading physicists included Werner Heisenberg, Max Born and Max Planck of Germany, Enrico Fermi of Italy, Niels Bohr of Denmark, Erwin Schrödinger of Austria and Paul Dirac of England.  Perhaps the most brilliant of the group was Enrico Fermi, who was a devout Christian and extraordinary in both his experimental and theoretical accomplishments.   

The insight of quantum mechanics was that subatomic particles act more like waves, and are never in a specific place at a specific time until they are observed.  Quantum mechanics led to the development of small transistors, which today form the integrated circuits in every computer and electronic device, from cell phones to IPods to laptops to radios to digital clocks and to many other examples of technology.

The insight of quantum mechanics was that subatomic particles act more like waves, and are never in a specific place at a specific time until they are observed.  Quantum mechanics led to the development of small transistors, which today form the integrated circuits in every computer and electronic device, from cell phones to IPods to laptops to radios to digital clocks and to many other examples of technology.

'''The Theory of Relativity'''

'''The Theory of Relativity'''

Though quantum mechanics was the most productive scientific achievement of the 20th century, most people are more likely to have heard about the “theory of relativity,” which was also developed during that century.  Unlike most advances in physics, the theory of relativity was proposed based on mathematical theory rather than observation.  The theory rests on two postulates (assumptions) that are difficult to test, and then derives mathematically what the physical consequences should be.  Those two postulates are that nothing can travel faster than the speed of light, and that all laws of physics are the same in every (inertial) frame of reference no matter where it is or how fast it is traveling.  This theory rejects Newton’s view of gravitation and replaces it with a concept that there is a continuum of space and time, and that large masses (like the sun) bend space in a manner similar to how a finger can depress an area of a balloon.  From this proposed bending of space the expression arose that “space is curved.”<ref>Later experiments demonstrated that space is not curved overall, and that it is actually flat.</ref>

Though quantum mechanics was the most productive scientific achievement of the 20th century, most people are more likely to have heard about the “theory of relativity,” which was also developed during that century.  Unlike most advances in physics, the theory of relativity was proposed based on mathematical theory rather than observation.  The theory rests on two postulates (assumptions) that are difficult to test, and then derives mathematical conclusions about what the physical consequences should be.  Those two postulates are that nothing can travel faster than the speed of light, and that all laws of physics are the same in every (inertial) frame of reference no matter where it is or how fast it is traveling.  This theory rejects Newton’s view of gravitation and replaces it with a concept that there is a continuum of space and time, and that large masses (like the sun) '''''bend space''''' in a manner similar to how a finger can depress an area of a balloon.  From this proposed bending of space the popular expression arose that “space is curved.”<ref>Later experiments demonstrated that space is not curved overall, and that it is actually flat.</ref>

[[Image:Cassini-science-289.jpg|right|thumb|a drawing of how a signal would dip into a gravity well around the [[sun]] according to the theory of relativity]]

[[Image:Cassini-science-289.jpg|right|thumb|a drawing of how a signal would dip into a gravity well around the [[sun]] according to the theory of relativity]]

Albert Einstein (1879-1955) and others promoted the theory of relativity.  Contrary to public perception, the theory of relativity had nothing to do with the development of the atom bomb or any other technology.  Only one Nobel Prize (in 1993) has ever been given for relativity, and the validity of that particular award is questionable.  Many things predicted by the theory of relativity, such as gravitons, have never been found despite expensive government projects (like “LIGO”<ref>http://www.ligo.caltech.edu/</ref>) that search for them.  Many observed phenomena attributed to the theory of relativity, such as the bending of light passing near the sun or the advance of the perihelion in the orbit of Mercury, can be also predicted by Newton’s theory.  The theory of relativity conflicts with quantum mechanics, and Einstein himself never accepted quantum mechanics.

Albert Einstein (1879-1955) and others promoted the theory of relativity.  Contrary to public perception, the theory of relativity had nothing to do with the development of the atom bomb or any other technology.  Only one Nobel Prize (in 1993) has ever been given for relativity, and the validity of that particular award is questionable.  Many things predicted by the theory of relativity, such as gravitons, have never been found despite expensive government projects (like “LIGO”<ref>http://www.ligo.caltech.edu/</ref>) that search for them.  Many observed phenomena attributed to the theory of relativity, such as the bending of light passing near the sun or the advance of the perihelion in the orbit of Mercury, are also predicted by Newton’s theory.  The theory of relativity conflicts with quantum mechanics, and Einstein himself never accepted quantum mechanics.

British Historian Paul Johnson declares the turning point in 20th century to have been when fellow Brit Sir Arthur Eddington, the top English astronomer, ventured out on a boat off Africa in 1919 to try to prove the theory of relativity.  The theory of relativity predicts twice the bending of light around massive objects compared to Newton’s theory, and an eclipse is required to darken the sun so that the starlight may be seen in proximity to the sun.  Eddington liked publicity and probably dreamed of winning a Nobel Prize, and upon his return to England declared that his observations proved the theory of relativity by observing the bending of starlight around the sun during a total eclipse.  That was good enough for reporters and historians, but the Nobel committee was not impressed and declined to give him an award.  Recent analysis of Eddington’s work revealed that he was biased in selecting his data, and that overall his data was inconclusive about the theory of relativity.   

British Historian Paul Johnson declares the turning point in 20th century to have been when fellow Brit Sir Arthur Eddington, the top English astronomer, ventured out on a boat off Africa in 1919 to try to prove the theory of relativity.  The theory of relativity predicts twice the bending of light around massive objects compared with Newton’s theory, and an eclipse is required to darken the sun so that the starlight may be seen in proximity to the sun.  Eddington liked publicity and probably dreamed of winning a Nobel Prize, and upon his return to England declared that his observations proved the theory of relativity by monitoring the bending of starlight around the sun during a total eclipse.  That was good enough for reporters and historians, but the Nobel committee was not impressed and declined to give him an award.  More recent analysis of Eddington’s work revealed that he was biased in selecting his data, and that overall his data was inconclusive about the theory of relativity.   

Eddington then promoted the theory of relativity to the public in his book entitled the ''Mathematical Theory of Relativity'' (1923).  As the title suggests, this theory was more a mathematical vision of how the universe should be, rather than what it actually was.  When a reporter asked Eddington whether only three people even understood the theory, Eddington comically replied, “Who’s the third?”  Later Eddington opposed a theory about massive stars known as white dwarfs put forth by Indian physicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, but Eddington was proven wrong and Chandrasekhar won a Nobel Prize for his work.  Eddington finally lost all credibility when he first insisted that a physical constant (the fine structure constant), measured to be close to 1/136, must ''precisely equal'' 1/136 to make the math easier, but when later measurements suggested a value closer to 1/137 Eddington insisted that it must precisely equal to 1/137 instead.  He was wrong both times.  When World War II threatened the future of England, Eddington was a conscientious objector and refused to participate.

Eddington then promoted the theory of relativity to the public in his book entitled the ''Mathematical Theory of Relativity'' (1923).  As the title suggests, this theory was more a mathematical vision of how the universe should be, rather than what it actually was.  When a reporter asked Eddington whether only three people even understood the theory, Eddington comically replied, “Who’s the third?” (as though no one else understood the theory other than Eddington and Einstein). Later Eddington opposed a theory about massive stars known as white dwarfs put forth by Indian physicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, but Eddington was proven wrong and Chandrasekhar won a Nobel Prize for his work.  Eddington finally lost all credibility when he first insisted that a physical constant (the fine structure constant), measured to be close to 1/136, must ''precisely equal'' 1/136 to make the math easier, but when later measurements suggested a value closer to 1/137 Eddington insisted that it must ''precisely equal'' to 1/137 instead.  He was wrong both times.  When World War II threatened the future of England, Eddington was a conscientious objector and refused to participate.

   

   

Just as “social Darwinism” arose from Darwinism, many seized upon the theory of relativity to apply it in a vague way to morality and social issues.  “All things are relative” became popular as atheists and others used relativity to attack Christian values.  As a law student, Barack Obama was given credit by a liberal professor in an article claiming that the theory of relativity could support a right to abortion.  Congress continues to spend billions of taxpayer dollars unsuccessfully trying to prove the theory.

Just as “social Darwinism” arose from Darwinism, many seized upon the theory of relativity to apply it in a vague way to morality and social issues.  “All things are relative” became popular as atheists and others used relativity to attack Christian values.  As a law student, Barack Obama was given credit by a liberal professor in an article claiming that the theory of relativity could support a right to abortion.  Meanwhile, Congress continues to spend billions of taxpayer dollars unsuccessfully trying to prove the theory.

'''The Big Bang?'''

'''The Big Bang?'''

'''Other 20th Century Theories'''

'''Other 20th Century Theories'''

Other thinkers in the early 1900s included Sigmund Freud (1856–1939).  He was the atheistic father of psychoanalysis, emphasizing the supposed importance of one’s unconscious mind and symbolic dreams.  He was a professor in Vienna, Austria.  In 1938 he fled the Nazis by traveling to England, where he was welcomed and became popular due to his atheism.  Freud proposed that the human psyche consists of three parts -- ego, super-ego, and id -- and that defense mechanisms are an attempt by the mind to resolve conflicts between the super-ego and the id.  A “Freudian slip” is something mistakenly spoken that supposedly reflects a view of one’s subconscious.  Critics of Freud point out that he fabricated some of his data in order to make some of his claims.  Late in life, Freud asked his doctor to kill him, which his doctor did.

Other thinkers in the early 1900s included Sigmund Freud (1856–1939).  He was the atheistic father of psychoanalysis, emphasizing the supposed importance of one’s unconscious mind and symbolic dreams.  He was a professor in Vienna, Austria.  In 1938 he fled the Nazis by traveling to England, where he was welcomed and became popular due to his atheism.  Freud proposed that the human psyche consists of three parts -- ego, super-ego, and id -- and that defense mechanisms are an attempt by the mind to resolve conflicts between the super-ego and the id.  A “Freudian slip” is something mistakenly spoken that supposedly reflects a view of one’s subconscious.  Critics of Freud point out that he fabricated some of his data in order to make some of his claims.  Freud himself lost his way morally: late in life, Freud asked his own doctor to kill him, which his doctor did.

===Technology===

===Technology===

The mass production of affordable cars had a tremendous effect on society, influencing everything from teenage life to families moving to the suburbs with the father commuting to work each day.  Arrival of the airplane also had an enormous impact, with Charles Lindbergh flying solo for the first time from New York to Paris in 1927.  Amelia Earhart was the first woman to cross the Atlantic by solo flight, in 1932.

The mass production of affordable cars had a tremendous effect on society, influencing everything from teenage life to families moving to the suburbs with the father commuting to work each day.  Arrival of the airplane also had an enormous impact, with Charles Lindbergh flying solo for the first time from New York to Paris in 1927.  Amelia Earhart was the first woman to cross the Atlantic by solo flight, in 1932.

In 1920, "KDKA" in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, became the first commercial radio station, and radio quickly developed into the center of entertainment for families.  Use of radio spread most quickly in the United States, where there is freedom of speech, and slowly in other countries where speech is controlled or regulated by the government.  Movies caught on in the 1920s in silent form and then, with sound, in the late 1930s.  ''The Wizard of Oz'' in 1939 was the first color movie.

In 1920, "KDKA" in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, became the first commercial radio station, and radio quickly developed into the center of entertainment for families.  Use of radio spread most quickly in the United States, where there is freedom of speech, and slowly in other countries where speech is controlled or regulated by the government.  Movies caught on in the 1920s in silent form and then, with sound, in the late 1930s.  ''The Wizard of Oz'' in 1939 was the first color movie, and it was immensely popular.

===Literature and Philosophy===

===Literature and Philosophy===

After World War I several novels deplored the apparent meaninglessness of that war, and war in general.  In ''All Quiet on the Western Front'' (1929), World War I veteran Erich Maria Remarque describes the war in an unflattering way from the perspective of German soldiers.  American Ernest Hemingway’s ''A Farewell to Arms'' (1929) was also critical of war.

After World War I several novels deplored the apparent meaninglessness of that war.  In ''All Quiet on the Western Front'' (1929), World War I veteran Erich Maria Remarque describes the war in an unflattering way from the perspective of German soldiers.  American Ernest Hemingway’s ''A Farewell to Arms'' (1929) was also critical of war.

Author and attorney Franz Kafka penned several classic stories illustrating how humans are alienated from a hostile, unintelligible and indifferent modern world.  Several of his works became classics after Kafka died, including ''The Trial'' (1925) and ''The Castle'' (1926).  In ''The Trial'', an innocent man finds himself a defendant in a trial that he cannot understand, and he is sentenced to death for a crime he didn’t do.  Kafka’s most famous short story was ''The Metamorphosis'' (1915), in which someone awakens to realize that he has been transformed into a massive cockroach that has been fatally injured.  Throughout Kafka’s works he expressed and sympathized with the feeling of being an outsider, of being someone who is not in the “in group.”  Kafka himself lacked religion and suffered from bouts of insanity as he grew older.

Other literature focused on other topics.  Author and attorney Franz Kafka penned several classic stories illustrating how humans are alienated from a hostile, unintelligible and indifferent modern world.  Several of his works became classics after Kafka died, including ''The Trial'' (1925) and ''The Castle'' (1926).  In ''The Trial'', an innocent man finds himself a defendant in a trial that he cannot understand, and he is sentenced to death for a crime he didn’t commit.  Kafka’s most famous short story was ''The Metamorphosis'' (1915), in which someone awakens to realize that he has been transformed into a massive cockroach that has been fatally injured.  Throughout Kafka’s works he expressed and sympathized with the feeling of being an outsider, of being someone who is not in the “in group.”  Kafka himself lacked religion and suffered from bouts of insanity as he grew older.

Philosophers increasingly abandoned religion.  Frenchman Jean Paul Sartre and the German Karl Jaspers advanced a new philosophy called “existentialism”, which taught that life has no meaning at all and that neither God nor morality exist.  Existentialism was a rebellion against all philosophy, seeking freedom for each person to form whatever value system he likes.  Rather than "I think therefore I am," an existentialist might say, "I exist therefore I think."  An atheist, Sartre’s most famous work was ''L'âge de raison'' (''The Age of Reason'') (1945).  Towards the end of his life he expressed sympathy with the terrorists who kidnapped and killed Israelis during the 1972 Olympics, asserting that it was “perfectly scandalous” how the French press criticized the terrorism.   

Philosophers increasingly abandoned religion.  Frenchman Jean Paul Sartre and the German Karl Jaspers advanced a new philosophy called “existentialism”, which taught that life has no meaning at all and that neither God nor morality exists.  Existentialism was a rebellion against all philosophy, seeking freedom for each person to form whatever value system he likes.  Rather than "I think therefore I am," an existentialist might absurdly say, "Maybe I exist, so therefore I think!"  An atheist, Sartre’s most famous work was ''L'âge de raison'' (''The Age of Reason'') (1945).  Towards the end of his life he shockingly expressed sympathy with the terrorists who kidnapped and killed Israelis during the 1972 Olympics, asserting that it was “perfectly scandalous” how the French press criticized the terrorism.   

Prior work in the 1800s by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) was the basis for the existentialism movement in the 1900s.  Nietzsche is famous for his statement that “God is dead.”  Nietzsche criticized Western democracy, preferring instead rule by elitist groups who could become almost superhuman through effort and courage.  Nietzsche himself went insane later in life, but many Germans promoted his ideas after World War I as Germans struggled to find self-esteem.

Prior work in the 1800s by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) was the basis for the existentialism movement in the 1900s.  Nietzsche is famous for his statement that “God is dead.”  Nietzsche criticized Western democracy, preferring instead rule by elitist groups who could become almost superhuman through effort and courage.  Nietzsche himself went insane later in life, but many Germans promoted his ideas after World War I as Germans struggled to find self-esteem.