Changes

Jewish people began to flee Germany, emigrating to other countries such as the United States and safer countries in Europe.  But other countries, including the United States, had limits on immigration.  The pogrom of the Kristallnacht in 1938, described earlier, increased the Jewish emigration from Germany.

Jewish people began to flee Germany, emigrating to other countries such as the United States and safer countries in Europe.  But other countries, including the United States, had limits on immigration.  The pogrom of the Kristallnacht in 1938, described earlier, increased the Jewish emigration from Germany.

Many Jewish people remained in Germany and throughout Europe, and they became victimized by Hitler’s “Final Solution” (“Endlosung”), which was the systematic execution of the Jewish people in concentration camps.  Other groups considered by Hitler to be inferior, such as gypsies and the disabled, were also targeted.  In 1941, Hitler began rounding them up and forcing them into segregated communities called ghettos, surrounded by barbed wire.  Concentration and extermination camps having gas chambers for mass executions were built to kill Jews.  Of the 6 million Jews killed in these camps, 3 million were from Poland, 1.5 million from the Soviet Union, and 160,000 from Germany.<ref>http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/history.html</ref> This is known as the Holocaust, an extreme evil unlike anything else in history. It is difficult to understand why no one stopped it until the Allied forces liberated the concentration camps.  Five million others, including millions of Christians, were also killed in these camps.<ref name="WW II Holocaust"/>

Many Jewish people remained in Germany and throughout Europe, and they became victimized by Hitler’s “Final Solution” (“Endlosung”), which was the “Holocaust”: the systematic execution of Jewish people and other innocent victims in concentration camps.  Other groups considered by Hitler to be inferior, such as gypsies and the disabled, were also targeted.  In 1941, Hitler began rounding them up and forcing them into segregated communities called ghettos, surrounded by barbed wire.  Concentration and extermination camps having gas chambers for mass executions were built to kill Jews.  Of the 6 million Jews killed in these camps, 3 million were from Poland, 1.5 million from the Soviet Union, and 160,000 from Germany.<ref>http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/history.html</ref>  It is difficult to understand why no one stopped this massacre until the Allied forces liberated the concentration camps.  Five million others, including millions of Christians, were also killed in these concentration camps.<ref name="WW II Holocaust"/>

The “Angel of Death” in one of the worst extermination (or death) camps, Auschwitz, was Dr. Josef Mengele.  Mengele had obtained a Ph.D. based on Darwinian evolution, and had written his dissertation thesis on racial differences among humans.  He supported and reinforced Nazi theories of racial superiority with phony research claims.  He was an ardent supporter of “survival of the fittest” and he performed cruel experiments on humans at the concentration camp in furtherance of the theory of evolution.  He attempted to prove that disease was the product of racial inferiority, and he would amputate healthy limbs and perform other cruel surgeries on prisoners.  Today Mengele is criticized by everyone, but supporters of the theory of evolution omit mentioning how much Mengele’s work was based on that theory.  Mengele was never punished for his crimes, and after the war he fled to Brazil, where decades later he drowned after suffering a stroke in his brain, while swimming.

The “Angel of Death” in one of the worst exgtermination (or death) camps, Auschwitz, was Dr. Josef Mengele.  Mengele had obtained a Ph.D. based on Darwinian evolution, and had written his dissertation thesis on racial differences among humans.  He supported and reinforced Nazi theories of racial superiority with phony research claims.  He was an ardent supporter of “survival of the fittest” and he performed cruel experiments on humans at the concentration camp in furtherance of the theory of evolution.  He attempted to prove that disease was the product of racial inferiority, and he would amputate healthy limbs and perform other cruel surgeries on prisoners.  Today Mengele is criticized by everyone, but supporters of the theory of evolution omit mentioning how much Mengele’s work was based on that theory.  Mengele was never punished for his crimes, and after the war he fled to Brazil, where decades later he drowned after suffering a stroke in his brain, while swimming.

===The Enigma===

===The Enigma===

In an effort to remain neutral, Congress passed several laws between 1935 and 1937 making it illegal for Americans to lend money to a nation at war, or sell it weapons.  But by 1941, President Roosevelt felt he needed to help England, and he persuaded Congress to pass the [[Lend-Lease Act]] to allow him to lend or lease weapons to any nation that he considered to be vital to the United States.  As a practical matter, this meant that President Roosevelt could now help England.  President Roosevelt ordered the U.S. Navy to begin escorting British ships that carried American arms, and Hitler predictably responded by commanding his U-boats (submarines) to sink cargo ships.  When a U-boat shot torpedoes at a U.S. destroyer in the Atlantic in September 1941, President Roosevelt ordered the U.S. ships to fire back.  An unofficial war had begun between the United States and Germany.

In an effort to remain neutral, Congress passed several laws between 1935 and 1937 making it illegal for Americans to lend money to a nation at war, or sell it weapons.  But by 1941, President Roosevelt felt he needed to help England, and he persuaded Congress to pass the [[Lend-Lease Act]] to allow him to lend or lease weapons to any nation that he considered to be vital to the United States.  As a practical matter, this meant that President Roosevelt could now help England.  President Roosevelt ordered the U.S. Navy to begin escorting British ships that carried American arms, and Hitler predictably responded by commanding his U-boats (submarines) to sink cargo ships.  When a U-boat shot torpedoes at a U.S. destroyer in the Atlantic in September 1941, President Roosevelt ordered the U.S. ships to fire back.  An unofficial war had begun between the United States and Germany.

President Roosevelt met secretly with Winston Churchill, the Prime Minister of Great Britain, in August 1941 on a boat in the Atlantic.  They agreed on a declaration for free trade and self-determination, disarmament of aggressor states (e.g., Japan and Germany) and freedom of the seas. This became known as the Atlantic Charter.  The United States and Great Britain renounced any territorial ambitions, and expansion against the wishes of local populations was condemned.  The Soviet Union soon endorsed the Atlantic Charter and the Charter later provided the ideological foundation for the United Nations.  

President Roosevelt met secretly with Winston Churchill, the Prime Minister of Great Britain, in August 1941 on a boat in the Atlantic.  '''''Roosevelt and Churchill agreed on a declaration for free trade and self-determination, disarmament of aggressor states (e.g., Japan and Germany) and freedom of the seas. This became known as the Atlantic Charter.''''' The United States and Great Britain renounced any territorial ambitions, and expansion against the wishes of local populations was condemned.  The Soviet Union soon endorsed the Atlantic Charter and the Charter later provided the ideological foundation for the United Nations.  

By late 1941 President Roosevelt wanted the United States in the war, mainly to save England but also to avert attention from his failure to end the Great Depression.  But the American people were not in favor of another world war.  Many prominent Americans, such as Charles Lindbergh, opposed American involvement in this war.  Many felt that the communist threat to the world was greater than the Nazi threat.  Roosevelt needed a way to turn public opinion in favor of war, and generate enough public support to win the war.

By late 1941 President Roosevelt wanted the United States in the war, primarily to save England but also to avert attention from his failure to end the Great Depression.  But the American people were not in favor of another world war.  Many prominent Americans, such as Charles Lindbergh, opposed American involvement in this war.  Many felt that the communist threat to the world was greater than the Nazi threat.  Roosevelt needed a way to turn public opinion in favor of war, and generate enough public support to win the war.

The Japanese did the trick.  On Dec. 7, 1941, the “day that will live in infamy,” the Japanese launched a surprise attack on our navy fleet at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, which was not yet a state.  Some people believe that Roosevelt knew the Japanese would attack because American mathematicians had broken the Japanese code and intercepted and decoded the messages between Japanese officers.  Also, the United States had a good radar system that should have been able to predict the attack an hour before it happened. But Roosevelt remained silent, allowing the American public to be outraged by this attack that sunk much of the U.S. Pacific fleet and killed 2,400 sailors.  Congress declared war on Japan the next day, and then declared war on Germany (after Germany declared war on the U.S.).  America thereby entered World War II.

The Japanese did the trick.  On Dec. 7, 1941, the “day that will live in infamy,” the Japanese launched a surprise attack on our navy fleet at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, which was not yet a state.  Some people believe that Roosevelt knew the Japanese would attack because American mathematicians had broken the Japanese code and intercepted and decoded the messages between Japanese officers.  Also, the United States had a good radar system that should have been able to predict the attack an hour before it happened. The result of the attack at Pearl Harbor, which sunk much of the U.S. Pacific fleet and killed 2,400 sailors, was complete outrage by the American public against the Japanese.  Congress declared war on Japan the next day, and then declared war on Germany (after Germany declared war on the U.S.).  America thereby entered World War II.

By this time Japan had already taken over Manchuria in China and established a Japanese state there called Manchukuo.  The Japanese viciously exploited and killed thousands of helpless Chinese in the Rape of Nanjing.  Japan sought to establish a Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, which was to be an Asia dominated by Japan and lacking in any western influence.  Japan had also seized French Indochina (Southeast Asia, primarily Vietnam and Cambodia) in July 1941.  Roosevelt had already suspended oil shipments to Japan, and blockaded Japan before it attacked Pearl Harbor.  Japan’s attack was perhaps due to this blockade.

By this time Japan had already taken over Manchuria in China and established a Japanese state there called Manchukuo.  The Japanese viciously exploited and killed thousands of helpless Chinese in the “Rape of Nanjing.” Japan sought to establish a Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, which was to be an Asia dominated by Japan and lacking in any western influence.  Japan had also seized French Indochina (Southeast Asia, primarily Vietnam and Cambodia) in July 1941.  Roosevelt had already suspended oil shipments to Japan, and blockaded Japan before it attacked Pearl Harbor.  Japan’s attack was perhaps due to this blockade.

But Japan did not stop with its success at Pearl Harbor.  It captured Wake Island and Guam in the Pacific, and then invaded the Philippines.  General Douglas MacArthur was stationed on the Philippines at the time, and American and Filipino soldiers fought valiantly on the Bataan Peninsula to defend the island against the Japanese.  General MacArthur escaped on a small speedboat, and the Japanese conquered the islands, including the island of Corregidor.  From there the Japanese also conquered Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, Burma and the Burma Road.  The Japanese seemed unstoppable.

But Japan did not stop with its success at Pearl Harbor.  It captured Wake Island and Guam in the Pacific, and then invaded the Philippines.  General Douglas MacArthur was stationed on the Philippines at the time, and American and Filipino soldiers fought valiantly on the Bataan Peninsula to defend the island against the Japanese.  General MacArthur escaped on a small speedboat, and the Japanese conquered the islands, including the island of Corregidor.  From there the Japanese also conquered Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, Burma and the Burma Road.  The Japanese seemed unstoppable.

The scientists eventually succeeded, and rushed a few prototype bombs to the [[military]] for potential use near the end of the war in 1945.  By then, Americans had won many victories against the Japanese in the Pacific, including capturing the island of Leyte in the Philippines in October 1944, and then defeating the Japanese at the Battle of Leyte Gulf.  The U.S. Marines defeated the Japanese at Iwo Jima, resulting in a famous picture of several Marines raising the American flag.  But the American capture of Okinawa in June 1945 proved to be one of the bloodiest land battles of the war with Japan.  It became clear that the Japanese would not agree to President Roosevelt’s demand for unconditional surrender, and that conquering Japan itself would cost the lives of perhaps a million American soldiers. (The Allied plan for possibly invading Japan was called ''Operation Downfall'', and it was canceled once the atomic bomb attacks were successful.) The Japanese were ready to fight to the death for their country.  Increasingly, Japanese fighter pilots became kamikazes by flying their planes in suicide missions directly into American ships.

The scientists eventually succeeded, and rushed a few prototype bombs to the [[military]] for potential use near the end of the war in 1945.  By then, Americans had won many victories against the Japanese in the Pacific, including capturing the island of Leyte in the Philippines in October 1944, and then defeating the Japanese at the Battle of Leyte Gulf.  The U.S. Marines defeated the Japanese at Iwo Jima, resulting in a famous picture of several Marines raising the American flag.  But the American capture of Okinawa in June 1945 proved to be one of the bloodiest land battles of the war with Japan.  It became clear that the Japanese would not agree to President Roosevelt’s demand for unconditional surrender, and that conquering Japan itself would cost the lives of perhaps a million American soldiers. (The Allied plan for possibly invading Japan was called ''Operation Downfall'', and it was canceled once the atomic bomb attacks were successful.) The Japanese were ready to fight to the death for their country.  Increasingly, Japanese fighter pilots became kamikazes by flying their planes in suicide missions directly into American ships.

President Roosevelt, who knew he was dying but kept it a secret from the American people in the election in November 1944, passed away on April 12, 1945.  He thereby served less than three months of his new term.  His vice president, Harry S Truman, became president despite not having been elected.  Truman was a decent man from Missouri but was beyond his depth as the leader of the nation.  He was not even aware that the Manhattan Project existed until late 1944.  Joseph Stalin knew more about the progress of the Manhattan Project, through spies, than Truman did.  Truman’s personality was to act impulsively, and he spent much of his spare time playing simple card games with friends.

President Roosevelt, who knew he was dying but kept it a secret from the American people in the election in November 1944, passed away on April 12, 1945.  He thereby served less than three months of his new term.  His vice president, Harry S Truman, became president despite not having been elected.  Truman was a decent man from Missouri but outmatched by more clever communists.  Truman was not even aware that the Manhattan Project existed until late 1944.  Joseph Stalin knew more about the progress of the Manhattan Project, through spies, than Truman did.  Truman’s personality was to act impulsively, and he spent much of his spare time playing simple card games with friends.

He had never met Winston Churchill or other world leaders, and soon he began to meet with them as Americans were looking for ways to wrap up the war.  In the summer of 1945 he received word from the Manhattan Project that the scientists had successfully built a few atomic bombs.  It would be up to President Truman to decide if and how to use the atomic bomb.

He had never met Winston Churchill or other world leaders, and soon he began to meet with them as Americans were looking for ways to wrap up the war.  In the summer of 1945 he received word from the Manhattan Project that the scientists had successfully built a few atomic bombs.  It would be up to President Truman to decide if and how to use the atomic bomb.

The German forces sneaked through wooded and hilly country in Luxembourg and Belgium with the goal of reaching Antwerp. The Nazis amassed three armies totaling 250,000 soldiers for a massive attack against the Allies in the Ardennes Forest. The Nazis surrounded the 101st Airborne Division in southern Belgium, and demanded their surrender. The Americans refused to surrender.  This battle was the largest ever fought by the U.S. Army.  Nearly 600,000 American soldiers fought in it.

The German forces sneaked through wooded and hilly country in Luxembourg and Belgium with the goal of reaching Antwerp. The Nazis amassed three armies totaling 250,000 soldiers for a massive attack against the Allies in the Ardennes Forest. The Nazis surrounded the 101st Airborne Division in southern Belgium, and demanded their surrender. The Americans refused to surrender.  This battle was the largest ever fought by the U.S. Army.  Nearly 600,000 American soldiers fought in it.

   

   

Allied resistance, especially the heroic effort by the 101st Airborne division, slowed the German forces just enough to prevent the Germans from making it to Antwerp. General Patton directed the Third Army to pray, and then he counterattacked.  He relieved the German pressure on the 101st Airborne Division and by February the Germans were in full retreat.  

Allied resistance, especially the heroic effort by the 101st Airborne division, slowed the German forces just enough to prevent the Germans from making it to Antwerp. General Patton directed the Third Army to pray, and then he counterattacked.  He beat back the German pressure on the 101st Airborne Division and by February the Germans were in full retreat.  

   

   

General Patton could have taken all of Eastern Europe from the Germans, and the Russians.  Patton planned to liberate Czechoslovakia but was told to stop in 1945.  He was accused of insubordination as he pleaded with his superiors to allow him to free Eastern Europe from both Nazi and communist control.  His superiors would not let Patton win more victories.  The communist Soviet Union then acquired control of eastern Germany and much of Eastern Europe, placing it under communist rule for most of the remainder of the century.  Soviet and American troops met at the Elbe River in Germany; Hitler and his wife, Eva Braun, committed suicide.  Germany immediately surrendered on May 7, 1945, and V-E Day (Victory in Europe) was May 8, 1945.

General Patton could have taken all of Eastern Europe from the Germans, and the communist Russians.  Patton planned to liberate Czechoslovakia but was told to stop in 1945.  He was accused of insubordination as he pleaded with his superiors to allow him to free Eastern Europe from both Nazi and communist control.  His superiors would not let Patton win more victories.  The communist Soviet Union then acquired control of eastern Germany and much of Eastern Europe, placing it under communist rule for most of the remainder of the century.  Soviet and American troops met at the Elbe River in Germany; Hitler and his wife, Eva Braun, committed suicide.  Germany immediately surrendered on May 7, 1945, and V-E Day (Victory in Europe) was May 8, 1945.

Two months later the leaders of the Allied powers traveled to Potsdam, Germany, to plan for a post-war Europe.  At this Potsdam Conference were Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union, Prime Minister Winston Churchill (who was there replaced by Clement Attlee after Churchill lost reelection in Britain), and President Truman (who had succeeded Roosevelt after his death in April).  They met from July 17 to August 2.

Two months later the leaders of the Allied powers traveled to Potsdam, Germany, to plan for a post-war Europe.  At this Potsdam Conference were Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union, Prime Minister Winston Churchill (who was there replaced by Clement Attlee after Churchill lost reelection in Britain), and President Truman (who had succeeded Roosevelt after his death in April).  They met from July 17 to August 2.

With 60 million dead from the war and many cities destroyed, there was much work to do to rebuild.  Famine and disease swept through the devastated areas of Europe.  European dominance and hegemony in the world was over.  Japan’s empire was conquered.  There needed to be fundamental changes in both Germany and Japan.

With 60 million dead from the war and many cities destroyed, there was much work to do to rebuild.  Famine and disease swept through the devastated areas of Europe.  European dominance and hegemony in the world was over.  Japan’s empire was conquered.  There needed to be fundamental changes in both Germany and Japan.

In Germany, the Nuremberg Trials in 1946 reviewed the most heinous acts of Germans during the war.  Josef Mengele fled undetected to Brazil, but other war criminals were caught, tried, and executed.  Supreme Court Justice Robert Jackson was appointed as the Chief Prosecutor.  Jackson, who never attended college, was known to be a brilliant, conservative judge.  Evidently he conducted the trial in a reasonably fair manner, as 3 persons were acquitted and a substantial percentage avoided the death penalty.  Some of the Allies, perhaps fearing the release of embarrassing information, kept Rudolph Hess (a German who had mysteriously visited England during the war) from telling what he knew and he spent most of the trial drugged up by his captors.  He was sentenced to life in jail and kept from the public until he died.  Twelve were executed.  There were more trials afterward, leading to the execution of 250 criminals.  Ever since, the Nuremberg Trials have served as a precedent for future trials for misdeeds during war.

In Germany, the Nuremberg Trials in 1946 reviewed the most heinous acts of Germans during the war.  Josef Mengele fled undetected to Brazil, but other war criminals were caught, tried, and executed.  Supreme Court Justice Robert Jackson was appointed as the Chief Prosecutor.  Jackson, who never attended college, was known to be a brilliant, conservative judge.  Evidently he conducted the trial in a fair manner, as 3 persons were acquitted and a substantial percentage avoided the death penalty.  Some of the Allies, perhaps fearing the release of embarrassing information, kept Rudolph Hess (a German who had mysteriously visited England during the war) from telling what he knew and he spent most of the trial drugged up by his captors.  He was sentenced to life in jail and kept from the public until he died.  Twelve were executed.  There were more trials afterward, leading to the execution of 250 criminals.  Ever since, the Nuremberg Trials have served as a precedent for future trials for misdeeds during war.

After Japan surrendered, the United States forced it to adopt a new constitution, a parliamentary form of government, and an admission by Emperor Hirohito that he was not divine.  All men and women over the age of 20 obtained the right to vote, and the emperor was reduced to the role of a figurehead, like the monarchy in England today.  The new Japanese constitution prohibited Japan from declaring war.  American troops occupied Japan, and General Douglas MacArthur moved there to rule over the country.

After Japan surrendered, the United States forced it to adopt a new constitution, a parliamentary form of government, and an admission by Emperor Hirohito that he was not divine.  All men and women over the age of 20 obtained the right to vote in Japan, and the emperor was reduced to the role of a figurehead, like the monarchy in England today.  The new Japanese constitution prohibited Japan from declaring war.  American troops occupied Japan, and General Douglas MacArthur moved there to rule over the country.

The United States helped rebuild Japan’s economy, giving it aid, loans and investments.  Wartime reparations were not required.  Soon Japan grew into an economy power and its goods flooded the American markets.  By the spring of 1952 the formal occupation of Japan by the United States ended, and the two nations had become allies with a mutual defense treaty.  However, they began competing economically instead of militarily.  Later many Americans would become bitter at how much we helped Japan after the war, as competition by Japanese companies eventually caused American industries (like the car industry) to fire workers.

The United States helped rebuild Japan’s economy, giving it aid, loans and investments.  Wartime reparations were not required.  Soon Japan grew into an economy power and its goods flooded the American markets.  By the spring of 1952 the formal occupation of Japan by the United States ended, and the two nations had become allies with a mutual defense treaty.  However, they began competing economically instead of militarily.  Later many Americans would become bitter at how much we helped Japan after the war, as competition by Japanese companies eventually caused American industries (like the car industry) to fire workers.

Germany itself was divided between communist and free portions.  The eastern side became the German Democratic Republic, which was merely a communist satellite of the Soviet Union and became known as “East Germany.”  The western side in 1947 became the Federal Republic of Germany.  As described in a memorable post-war speech by Winston Churchill in Missouri, the Soviet Union had dropped an “iron curtain” across Eastern Europe.   

Germany itself was divided between communist and free portions.  The eastern side became the German Democratic Republic, which was merely a communist satellite of the Soviet Union and became known as “East Germany.”  The western side in 1947 became the Federal Republic of Germany.  As described in a memorable post-war speech by Winston Churchill in Missouri, the Soviet Union had dropped an “iron curtain” across Eastern Europe.   

Berlin, the historic capital city of Germany, was located in the eastern side and the Allied Powers agreed to split that city into free and communist parts.  Stalin then showed his hatred of freedom by blockading the delivery of goods to the free part of Berlin, which was as easy as simply stopping the railroads from traveling to Berlin from the west.  The Allies reacted by implementing a massive airlift of foods and supplies to West Berlin.  Every day huge numbers of airplanes flew to and from West Berlin to carry enough cargo to support a large city.  This Berlin Airlift lasted nearly 11 months, from June 1948 to May 1949, until the Soviet Union backed down and lifted the ground blockade.

Berlin, the historic capital city of Germany, was located in the communist eastern section and the Allied Powers agreed to split that city into free and communist parts.  Stalin then showed his hatred of freedom by blockading the delivery of goods to the free part of Berlin, which was as easy as simply stopping the railroads from traveling to Berlin from the west.  The Allies reacted by implementing a massive airlift of foods and supplies to West Berlin.  Every day huge numbers of airplanes flew to and from West Berlin to carry enough cargo to support a large city.  This Berlin Airlift lasted nearly 11 months, from June 1948 to May 1949, until the Soviet Union backed down and lifted the ground blockade.

A decade later, in 1961, the Soviet Union reacted to a different problem:  huge numbers of refugees fleeing communism in East Berlin to live in the free West Berlin.  While President Kennedy was enjoying a long, relaxing weekend, the communists built a concrete wall to separate East Berlin from West Berlin.  Barbed wire was placed atop this “Berlin Wall,” and armed guards were posted along it to shoot and kill anyone trying to escape from the East into the West (no one would want to go in the opposite direction).  Stories of daring and sometimes successful escapes are fascinating to read.  This was the wall at which President Ronald Reagan stood in the late 1980s demanding that the head of the Soviet Union “tear down this wall!”

A decade later, in 1961, the Soviet Union reacted to a different problem:  huge numbers of refugees fleeing communism in East Berlin to live in the free West Berlin.  While President Kennedy was enjoying a long, relaxing weekend, the communists built a concrete wall to separate East Berlin from West Berlin.  Barbed wire was placed atop this “Berlin Wall,” and armed guards were posted along it to shoot and kill anyone trying to escape from the East into the West (no one would want to go in the opposite direction).  Stories of daring and sometimes successful escapes are fascinating to read.  This was the wall at which President Ronald Reagan stood in the late 1980s demanding that the head of the Soviet Union “tear down this wall!”

Back in 1945, the United Nations was set up by Soviet spy Alger Hiss, who was a confidant of Roosevelt, initially in San Francisco.  The United Nations charter established a General Assembly on the principle of one vote per nation.  There was an 11-member Security Council on which Great Britain, China, the United States, France and the Soviet Union had permanent seats.  The other seats rotate and have representative nations from around the world.  Today the Security Council has 15 seats, and the communist Hugo Chavez from Venezuela has requested a seat on it.  Any nation on the Security Council can veto any proposal.  The United Nations moved to New York City where it sits today, and many feel it is ineffective or even counterproductive.  Supporters of the United Nations say that it is important to promote peace and participate in peacekeeping operations.

Back in 1945, the United Nations was set up by Soviet spy Alger Hiss, who was a confidant of Roosevelt, initially in San Francisco.  The United Nations charter established a General Assembly on the principle of one vote per nation.  There was an 11-member Security Council on which Great Britain, China, the United States, France and the Soviet Union had permanent seats.  The other seats rotate and have representative nations from around the world.  Today the Security Council has 15 seats.  Any nation on the Security Council can veto any proposal.  The United Nations moved to New York City where it sits today, and many feel it is ineffective or even counterproductive.  Supporters of the United Nations say that it is important to promote peace and participate in peacekeeping operations.

The United States had several reactions to the Cold War.  One was a policy of “containment”, whereby America helped smaller countries seeking to resist the spread of communism to them.  The Truman Doctrine was a statement of support to Greece and Turkey against communist advances, and Congress authorized military and economic aid.

The United States had several reactions to the Cold War.  One was a policy of “containment”, whereby America helped smaller countries seeking to resist the spread of communism to them.  The Truman Doctrine was a statement of support to Greece and Turkey against communist advances, and Congress authorized military and economic aid.

Military alliances formed on both sides.  After the Berlin blockade in 1949, western countries joined together as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).  In response, in 1955, the Soviet Union formed a communist alliance in the Warsaw Pact, which included all the communist countries of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union itself.  Another organization, the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), brought together the United States, Great Britain, Pakistan, Turkey, Iran and Iraq to stop communist advances in the Middle East (Southwest Asia).  SEATO, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, performed the same function in the Far East.  Members included the United States, Great Britain, France, Thailand, Pakistan, Australia, New Zealand, and the Philippines.

Military alliances formed on both sides.  After the Berlin blockade in 1949, western countries joined together as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).  In response, in 1955, the Soviet Union formed a communist alliance in the Warsaw Pact, which included all the communist countries of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union itself.  Another organization, the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), brought together the United States, Great Britain, Pakistan, Turkey, Iran and Iraq to stop communist advances in the Middle East (Southwest Asia).  SEATO, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, performed the same function in the Far East.  Members included the United States, Great Britain, France, Thailand, Pakistan, Australia, New Zealand, and the Philippines.

Technology played a key role in the Cold War.  The United States developed the atomic bomb in 1945.  Using secrets stolen from the United States, the Soviet Union detonated its first atomic bomb in 1949.  To stay one step ahead, the United States developed the far more powerful hydrogen bomb (H-bomb) in 1952.  This used nuclear fusion and is called a “thermonuclear weapon.”  The Soviet Union developed an H-bomb for itself nine months later.  Both nations began to develop huge inventories of these bombs, and advocated a policy of “brinkmanship” or the willingness to do whatever was necessary to defend their interests.

Technology played a key role in the Cold War.  The United States developed the atomic bomb in 1945.  Using secrets stolen from the United States, the Soviet Union detonated its first atomic bomb in 1949.  To stay one step ahead, the United States developed the far more powerful hydrogen bomb (H-bomb) in 1952.  This used nuclear fusion and is called a “thermonuclear weapon.”  The Soviet Union quickly copied it by building its own H-bomb nine months later.  Both nations began to develop huge inventories of these bombs, and advocated a policy of “brinkmanship” or the willingness to do whatever was necessary to defend their interests.

The Cold War took advantage of improvements in space technology.  First both the United States and Soviet Union developed intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) to shoot each other with nuclear arms.  Then the Soviet Union launched the first unmanned satellite, known as Sputnik I, into outer space in 1957.  This greatly alarmed Americans, and the United States responded by launching its own satellite in 1958 and later initiating a mission to land on the Moon.

The Cold War took advantage of improvements in space technology.  First both the United States and Soviet Union developed intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) to shoot each other with nuclear arms.  Then the Soviet Union launched the first unmanned satellite, known as Sputnik I, into outer space in 1957.  This greatly alarmed Americans, and the United States responded by launching its own satellite in 1958 and later initiating a mission to land on the Moon.

That single maneuver turned certain defeat into certain victory, as the North Korean army was then stuck without supplies.  But a month later communist Chinese began flooding into North Korea by the hundreds of thousands to help the fellow communists.  General MacArthur wanted to defeat them also, but President Truman refused and fired MacArthur for his subordination.  MacArthur had disobeyed orders from his commander-in-chief, and faced consequences for that.  In July 1953, a ceasefire was signed reestablishing the 38th parallel as the dividing line.  A demilitarized zone on both sides exists to this day.

That single maneuver turned certain defeat into certain victory, as the North Korean army was then stuck without supplies.  But a month later communist Chinese began flooding into North Korea by the hundreds of thousands to help the fellow communists.  General MacArthur wanted to defeat them also, but President Truman refused and fired MacArthur for his subordination.  MacArthur had disobeyed orders from his commander-in-chief, and faced consequences for that.  In July 1953, a ceasefire was signed reestablishing the 38th parallel as the dividing line.  A demilitarized zone on both sides exists to this day.

The North Korean dictator, Kim Il Sung, ruled the country for decades and was succeeded by his son, Kim Jong Il, who more recently alarmed the world by saying he has nuclear weapons.  South Korea, meanwhile, has grown, with capitalism, far stronger than North Korea.  South Korea had its first free elections in 1987.

The North Korean dictator, Kim Il Sung, ruled the country for decades and was succeeded by his son, Kim Jong Il, who then alarmed the world by saying he has nuclear weapons.  He passed away and has been succeeded by his son.  South Korea, meanwhile, has grown, with capitalism, far stronger than North Korea.  South Korea had its first free elections in 1987.

Repeated attempts to reunite North and South Korea have been total failures, as North Korea remains completely communist (like China and Cuba) while South Korea is one of the most Christian and free enterprise nations in the world.  The South Korean electronics company Samsung has risen to dominance in the computer video market (it makes remarkable computer and television screens), and the South Korean car company Hyundai has also been successful in competing against the Japanese and American companies.

Repeated attempts to reunite North and South Korea have been total failures, as North Korea remains completely communist (like China and Cuba) while South Korea is one of the most Christian and free enterprise nations in the world.  The South Korean electronics company Samsung has risen to dominance in the computer video market (it first made remarkable computer and television screens, and then made the Android smart phone), and the South Korean car company Hyundai has also been successful in competing against the Japanese and American companies.

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