Changes

When President Nixon arrived at the White House after the 1968 elections, he embraced “Vietnamization” as a policy for slowly withdrawing American troops from South Vietnam, hoping that the South Vietnamese would do more themselves in fighting communism.  Nixon also increased bombing of North Vietnam and Vietcong strongholds in Cambodia and Laos.

When President Nixon arrived at the White House after the 1968 elections, he embraced “Vietnamization” as a policy for slowly withdrawing American troops from South Vietnam, hoping that the South Vietnamese would do more themselves in fighting communism.  Nixon also increased bombing of North Vietnam and Vietcong strongholds in Cambodia and Laos.

Nixon was heavily influenced by his adviser Henry Kissinger.  Kissinger’s approach towards Vietnam was to launch bombing attacks and then look like a hero in declaring cease-fires.  He did this repeatedly and received much praise by newspapers for it.  But the communists would simply re-supply their guerrilla fighters during the cease-fires, and so the cease-fires actually helped the communists continue the war.  (A "guerrilla" is someone who fights aggressively in an unorganized, irregular manner based on surprise, deception and sabotage.)  By 1973, the United States gave up and pulled the last American soldiers out.  A million Vietnamese then fled South Vietnam to escape the communists, who took over by 1975.  The United States imposed a trade embargo on the newly unified Vietnam that lasted until 1994.  President Bush visited Vietnam in 2006.

Nixon was heavily influenced by his adviser Henry Kissinger.  Kissinger’s approach towards Vietnam was to launch bombing attacks and then look like a hero in declaring cease-fires.  He did this repeatedly and received much praise by newspapers for it.  But the communists would simply re-supply their guerrilla fighters during the cease-fires, and so the cease-fires actually helped the communists continue the war.  (A "guerrilla" is someone who fights aggressively in an unorganized, irregular manner using surprise, deception and sabotage.)  By 1973, the United States gave up and pulled the last American soldiers out.  A million Vietnamese then fled South Vietnam to escape the communists, who took over by 1975.  The United States imposed a trade embargo on the newly unified Vietnam that lasted until 1994.  President Bush visited Vietnam in 2006.

Things worsened further in next-door Cambodia after the Americans left Vietnam.  Pol Pot took over Cambodia in 1975, and he abolished private property, money and religion, and converted everything back to an agricultural society.  He emptied the cities.  His ruthless policies possibly resulted in the death of 1-2 million Cambodians in the late 1970s.  The Hollywood movie about his dictatorship, ''The Killing Fields'', exposed his atrocities and perhaps exaggerated them as a way of blaming the United States, which once supported Pol Pot as a counterweight to Vietnam.  Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge government fell in 1979 when Vietnam invaded Cambodia after a series of violent border confrontations, and Pol Pot fled to the northern jungle with his forces.  He died from illness in 1998.  Today there are United Nations peacekeeping forces in Cambodia.

Things worsened further in next-door Cambodia after the Americans left Vietnam.  Pol Pot took over Cambodia in 1975, and he abolished private property, money and religion, and converted everything back to an agricultural society.  He emptied the cities.  His ruthless policies possibly resulted in the death of 1-2 million Cambodians in the late 1970s.  The Hollywood movie about his dictatorship, ''The Killing Fields'', exposed his atrocities and perhaps exaggerated them as a way of blaming the United States, which once supported Pol Pot as a counterweight to Vietnam.  Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge government fell in 1979 when Vietnam invaded Cambodia after a series of violent border confrontations, and Pol Pot fled to the northern jungle with his forces.  He died from illness in 1998.  Today there are United Nations peacekeeping forces in Cambodia.

===Latin America ===

===Latin America ===

In connection with the “Third World”<ref>Today the term “developing world” is preferred by some to the term of “Third World.”  Traditionally, the “First World” was the highly industrialized capitalistic societies of Europe, Japan, and the United States, and the “Second World” was the less developed nations under communism.</ref> of Latin America, Africa, and many parts of Asia, the Cold War became a battle for influence over the system of government adopted by any and every small country.  It seemed like there were only two choices:  communist or free (capitalist).  Both the United States and Soviet Union would compete with each other to provide to developing nations aid, military advisers, social workers (e.g., the Peace Corps from the United States), educational programs and technology.

In connection with the “Third World”<ref>Today the term “developing world” is more “politically correct” than “Third World.”  Traditionally, the “First World” was the industrialized, capitalist societies of Europe, Japan, and the United States, and the “Second World” was the less developed communist nations.</ref> of Latin America, Africa, and many parts of Asia, the Cold War became a battle for influence over the system of government adopted by any and every small country.  It seemed like there were only two choices:  communist or free (capitalist).  Both the United States and Soviet Union would compete with each other to provide to developing nations aid, military advisers, social workers (e.g., the Peace Corps from the United States), educational programs and technology.

This drama has been playing out in Latin America ever since World War II, and remains an issue even now.  In the 1950s, the United States supported Fulgencio Batista as dictator of Cuba, but Fidel Castro overthrew him in 1959.  Liberals in the United States promoted Castro as a hero, and he was welcomed to talk at American colleges.  But just as conservatives predicted, Castro became a ruthless communist dictator who brutally suppressed all opposition and ended free speech and free enterprise on the island of Cuba.  Castro seized private industries, such as the thriving sugar refineries, and predictably the Cuban economy collapsed.  Cuba fell from being one of the most prosperous nations to one of the poorest.  Today most Cubans cannot even afford to own an automobile.

This drama has been playing out in Latin America ever since World War II, and remains an issue even now.  In the 1950s, the United States supported Fulgencio Batista as dictator of Cuba, but Fidel Castro overthrew him in 1959.  Liberals in the United States promoted Castro as a hero, and he was welcomed to talk at American colleges.  But just as conservatives predicted, Castro became a ruthless communist dictator who brutally suppressed all opposition and ended free speech and free enterprise on the island of Cuba.  Castro seized private industries, such as the thriving sugar refineries, and predictably the Cuban economy collapsed.  Cuba fell from being one of the most prosperous nations to one of the poorest.  Today most Cubans cannot even afford to own an automobile.

But Cuba continued to grow closer politically to the Soviet Union, which funded its failing economy.  In the 1970s Cuba sent 50,000 soldiers to help communism in Angola, and Cuba remained there until 1988.  When communism itself fell in the Soviet Union in 1991 and it broke up, Cuba lost its funding.  It became even poorer, dropping to desperate levels of poverty throughout the nation.

But Cuba continued to grow closer politically to the Soviet Union, which funded its failing economy.  In the 1970s Cuba sent 50,000 soldiers to help communism in Angola, and Cuba remained there until 1988.  When communism itself fell in the Soviet Union in 1991 and it broke up, Cuba lost its funding.  It became even poorer, dropping to desperate levels of poverty throughout the nation.

Communism in Latin America was not limited to Cuba.  In Nicaragua, communist rebels named the Sandinistas overthrew an American-backed ruler named Anastasio Somoza.  The United States then supported the anti-communist Contras in the 1980s.  In 1990, the Sandinista leader Daniel Ortega finally agreed to hold free elections in order to end the civil war, and he was defeated by the pro-American Violeta Chamorro.  But in 1997 Arnoldo Alemán was elected as the Nicaraguan leader. Although a supposedly not a communist, he formed a pact with the Sandinistas against his own Liberal Constitutionalist Party, and near the end of 2006 Daniel Ortega completed a successful comeback by being elected as president based on his claim that he is not a communist anymore.  He won with only about 38% of the vote, benefiting from a change in rules that no longer requires at least 45% of the vote to win.

Communism in Latin America was not limited to Cuba.  In Nicaragua, communist rebels named the Sandinistas overthrew an American-backed ruler named Anastasio Somoza.  The United States then supported the anti-communist Contras in the 1980s.  In 1990, the Sandinista leader Daniel Ortega finally agreed to hold free elections in order to end the civil war, and he was defeated by the pro-American Violeta Chamorro.  But in 1997 Arnoldo Alemán was elected as the Nicaraguan leader. Although supposedly not a communist, he formed a pact with the Sandinistas against his own Liberal Constitutionalist Party, and near the end of 2006 Daniel Ortega completed a successful comeback by being elected as president based on his claim that he is not a communist anymore.  He won with only about 38% of the vote, benefiting from a change in rules that no longer requires at least 45% of the vote to win.

The poverty in many countries in Latin America may help explain why communism is more popular there.  In Nicaragua, one of the poorest nations in Latin America, 46% of the population lived on less than $386 in income for the entire year of 2001.  Not only is a job hard to find, but electricity and drinking water are not always available either.  

The poverty in many countries in Latin America may help explain why communism is more popular there.  In Nicaragua, one of the poorest nations in Latin America, 46% of the population lived on less than $386 in income for the entire year of 2001.  Not only is a job hard to find, but electricity and drinking water are not always available either.  

Also in 1972, Nixon traveled to the Soviet Union and signed an arms agreement with the Soviet Union to reduce the numbers of nuclear weapons.  This agreement was “SALT I,” representing the “Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty.”  These apparently friendly dealings between the archenemies United States and the Soviet Union were described with the French word of “détente” (relaxation in tension between nations).  For centuries French was the language of diplomacy in Europe and its vocabulary offered the best terms.   

Also in 1972, Nixon traveled to the Soviet Union and signed an arms agreement with the Soviet Union to reduce the numbers of nuclear weapons.  This agreement was “SALT I,” representing the “Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty.”  These apparently friendly dealings between the archenemies United States and the Soviet Union were described with the French word of “détente” (relaxation in tension between nations).  For centuries French was the language of diplomacy in Europe and its vocabulary offered the best terms.   

SALT I limited the United States and Soviet Union to their 1972 levels of intercontinental ballistic missiles.  In 1975, the two nations signed another arms reduction agreement known as the Helsinki Accords, and this was joined by 35 other nations.  The American presidency had changed from Nixon to Gerald Ford by 1975, but in practice the Administration was still being run by Henry Kissinger and his view of world government and relations.  Conservatives criticized both treaties as merely hurting the United States, emphasizing that there was no way to enforce the treaty against the Soviet Union.

SALT I limited the United States and Soviet Union to their 1972 levels of intercontinental ballistic missiles.  In 1975, the two nations signed another arms reduction agreement known as the Helsinki Accords, and this was joined by 35 other nations.  The American presidency had changed from Nixon to Gerald Ford by 1975, but in practice the Administration was still being run by Henry Kissinger and his view of world government and relations.  Conservatives criticized both treaties as hurting the United States, emphasizing that there was no way to enforce the treaty against the Soviet Union.

President Jimmy Carter continued the trend by signing SALT II in 1979, which would have provided for further reductions.  In a victory for conservatives, the U.S. Senate refused to ratify that treaty.  At one point, President Carter told the American people that his 12-year-old daughter was upset about the growing problem of “nuclear proliferation,” by which many other nations such as India and Pakistan acquired atomic bombs.  Many thought Carter's reasoning was silly.

President Jimmy Carter continued the trend by signing SALT II in 1979, which would have provided for further reductions.  In a victory for conservatives, the U.S. Senate refused to ratify that treaty.  At one point, President Carter told the American people that his 12-year-old daughter was upset about the growing problem of “nuclear proliferation,” by which many other nations such as India and Pakistan acquired atomic bombs.  Many thought Carter's reasoning was silly.

== Independence Movements in the 20th Century ==

== Independence Movements in the 20th Century ==

For most of the population in the world, the history of the 20th century can be summed up in one word:  '''Independence'''.  That is true for India (about 1 billion people), Indonesia (215 million), much of Africa (890 million), Israel, and Eastern Europe.  Additional nations, China (1 billion) and Latin America (523 million), already had acquired independence prior to the 20th century, but had important nationalistic movements during the 20th century too.

For most of the population in the world, the history of the 20th century can be summed up in one word:  '''Independence'''.  That is true for India (about 1 billion people), Indonesia (215 million), much of Africa (890 million), Israel, and Eastern Europe.  Additional nations, China (1 billion) and Latin America (523 million), had already acquired independence prior to the 20th century, but had important nationalistic movements during the 20th century too.

=== South Asia ===

=== South Asia ===

There was increasing pressure worldwide for South Africa to end its racism.  Its athletes were banned from the Olympics since the 1960s, and trade restrictions were imposed by other nations.  A black South African bishop, Desmond Tutu, called for boycotts of his own nation.

There was increasing pressure worldwide for South Africa to end its racism.  Its athletes were banned from the Olympics since the 1960s, and trade restrictions were imposed by other nations.  A black South African bishop, Desmond Tutu, called for boycotts of his own nation.

In 1989, a new South African president named F.W. de Klerk was elected, and he ended apartheid.  With international approval, de Klerk legalized the ANC, released Nelson Mandela from jail, obtained repeal of apartheid laws, and agreed to fully democratic elections in 1994.  Nelson Mandela then won those elections and the ANC won a majority in the National Assembly, the bigger house in the South African Parliament.  A new constitution containing a bill of rights like that in the United States was adopted in 1996, but also included "rights" to entitlements.  In the same year, liberals passed a pro-abortion law and the number of abortions there has tragically increased 100 times between 1990 and today.  The world fully accepts South Africa now, and it hosted the World Cup (soccer) in 2010.  But while the outside world accepts South Africa, the country has been hurt by a mass exodus due to increased crime.  "We as a nation cannot afford to lose skilled and hard-working citizens of whatever hue," declared one South African candidate for high office in 2006.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5412892.stm</ref> Abortion increased 100 times after

In 1989, a new South African president named F.W. de Klerk was elected, and he ended apartheid.  With international approval, de Klerk legalized the ANC, released Nelson Mandela from jail, obtained repeal of apartheid laws, and agreed to fully democratic elections in 1994.  Nelson Mandela then won those elections and the ANC won a majority in the National Assembly, the bigger house in the South African Parliament.  A new constitution containing a bill of rights like that in the United States was adopted in 1996, but also included entitlements.  In the same year, liberals passed a pro-abortion law and the number of abortions there has tragically increased 100 times between 1990 and today.  The world fully accepts South Africa now, and it hosted the World Cup (soccer) in 2010.  But while the outside world accepts South Africa, the country has been hurt by a mass exodus due to increased crime.  "We as a nation cannot afford to lose skilled and hard-working citizens of whatever hue," declared one South African candidate for high office in 2006.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5412892.stm</ref>

==== British, French and Italian colony - Somalia ====

==== British, French and Italian colony - Somalia ====

The Turks controlled Palestine for centuries leading up to World War I, but the defeat of the Ottoman Turks in that war allowed Great Britain to assume control of the territory.  Its Balfour Declaration (1917) favored a Jewish homeland while protecting rights of Arabs living there.  Between the world wars many Jewish settlers from Europe migrated to Palestine and set up communal agricultural settlements known as kibbutzim, in anticipation of a new Jewish state.  The Jewish population in Palestine increased from about 84,000 in 1922 to 554,000 in 1945, but the Muslim population also increased by almost an identical amount from 589,000 to about 1,036,000.  Today there are about 5 million people of Jewish origin living in Israel.  Relatively few Jewish citizens of the United States have moved to Palestine, but they have generously lent financial and political support for the Zionist cause.

The Turks controlled Palestine for centuries leading up to World War I, but the defeat of the Ottoman Turks in that war allowed Great Britain to assume control of the territory.  Its Balfour Declaration (1917) favored a Jewish homeland while protecting rights of Arabs living there.  Between the world wars many Jewish settlers from Europe migrated to Palestine and set up communal agricultural settlements known as kibbutzim, in anticipation of a new Jewish state.  The Jewish population in Palestine increased from about 84,000 in 1922 to 554,000 in 1945, but the Muslim population also increased by almost an identical amount from 589,000 to about 1,036,000.  Today there are about 5 million people of Jewish origin living in Israel.  Relatively few Jewish citizens of the United States have moved to Palestine, but they have generously lent financial and political support for the Zionist cause.

The Balfour Declaration called for the creation of Palestinian state in addition to Israel.  Lawrence of Arabia (a British leader, T.E. Lawrence, who inspired an Arab revolt against the Ottoman Turks during World War I) then helped create Jordan (originally Transjordan) as a semi-autonomous Palestinian state in 1921.  Jordan attained its full independence in 1946.  But later there were demands for another Palestinian state.  Lawrence of Arabia favored promotion of the British Empire in the Middle East, and resisted creation of a Jewish state as a threat to British influence in the region.  Others opposed the creation of a Jewish state based on the argument that it would be imperialistic, with migrating Russian Jews being accused of imperialism.

The Balfour Declaration called for the creation of Palestinian state in addition to Israel.  Lawrence of Arabia (a British leader, T.E. Lawrence, who inspired an Arab revolt against the Ottoman Turks during World War I) then helped create Jordan (originally Transjordan) as a semi-autonomous Palestinian state in 1921.  Jordan attained its full independence in 1946.  But later there were demands for another Palestinian state.  Lawrence of Arabia favored promotion of the British Empire in the Middle East, and resisted creation of a Jewish state as a threat to British influence in the region.  Others opposed the creation of a Jewish state by arguing that it would be imperialistic, with migrating Russian Jews being accused of imperialism.

World War II changed many things, and after the war Great Britain asked the United Nations to partition Palestine.  The United Nations carved out a small parcel of property, slightly smaller than the state of New Jersey, for a new Jewish state to be named “Israel” (see map).  This new nation was born on May 14, 1948, with David Ben-Gurion as its first prime minister and renowned scientist Chaim Weizmann as its first president.

World War II changed many things, and after the war Great Britain asked the United Nations to partition Palestine.  The United Nations carved out a small parcel of property, slightly smaller than the state of New Jersey, for a new Jewish state to be named “Israel” (see map).  This new nation was born on May 14, 1948, with David Ben-Gurion as its first prime minister and renowned scientist Chaim Weizmann as its first president.

As conflict worsened in Poland, Pope John Paul II visited the country and attracted literally millions of supporters.  At one point, he stood at the podium with the communist-installed leader and lectured him about respecting the dignity and freedom of the Polish people.  The communist leader trembled in front of the huge crowd.  When the Soviet Union threatened to crack down on the Polish people, the Pope declared that he would respond by returning to Poland to fight on the front lines against the communists.

As conflict worsened in Poland, Pope John Paul II visited the country and attracted literally millions of supporters.  At one point, he stood at the podium with the communist-installed leader and lectured him about respecting the dignity and freedom of the Polish people.  The communist leader trembled in front of the huge crowd.  When the Soviet Union threatened to crack down on the Polish people, the Pope declared that he would respond by returning to Poland to fight on the front lines against the communists.

In April 1989, the Polish government allowed free elections for the first time since World War II, and the people elected Lech Walesa as president and his group Solidarity swept into office.  Communism was defeated.  The fall of communism in Poland had this great effect:  the new Christian-based government banned abortion.  Abortion rates in the communist Soviet Union had been several times higher than the rest of the world.

In April 1989, the Polish government allowed free elections for the first time since World War II, and the people elected Lech Walesa as president and his group Solidarity swept into office.  Communism was defeated.  The fall of communism in Poland had this great effect:  the new Christian-based government banned abortion, and it has decreased to nearly zero there.  Abortion rates in the communist Soviet Union had been several times higher than the rest of the world.

   

   

Hungary, the same country that attempted to overthrow communism in 1956, immediately followed Poland’s lead.  In October 1989, opponents of the Communist Party took it over and dissolved it.  A new constitution allowed for national elections in 1990, and the people defeated the communists in power.  Hungary embraced some free enterprise and started a stock market.  But like much of Eastern Europe, socialists remained powerful and in 1994 they crept back into power and raised taxes.  Today Hungary is a mixture of socialism and free enterprise.

Hungary, the same country that attempted to overthrow communism in 1956, immediately followed Poland’s lead.  In October 1989, opponents of the Communist Party took it over and dissolved it.  A new constitution allowed for national elections in 1990, and the people defeated the communists in power.  Hungary embraced some free enterprise and started a stock market.  But like much of Eastern Europe, socialists remained powerful and in 1994 they crept back into power and raised taxes.  Today Hungary is a mixture of socialism and free enterprise.

Other Eastern European countries then wanted the same freedom from communism.  In Czechoslovakia, demonstrations forced the Communist Party leader Milos Jakes to resign in November 1989, and he was replaced by Vaclav Havel.  In 1993, the country split along ethnic lines to form Slovakia and the Czech Republic, caused in part by economic difficulties in the conversion from communism to free enterprise.

Other Eastern European countries then wanted the same freedom from communism.  In Czechoslovakia, demonstrations forced the Communist Party leader Milos Jakes to resign in November 1989, and he was replaced by Vaclav Havel.  In 1993, the country split along ethnic lines to form Slovakia and the Czech Republic, caused in part by economic difficulties in the conversion from communism to free enterprise.

Next came Romania, which had been ruled for decades by the communist dictator Nicolae Ceausescu.  Massive demonstrations against his rule in December 1989 caused the army to join the people, and they captured Ceausescu as he attempted to flee with his wife.  They were executed on Christmas Day; the timing suggests that the revolutionaries were perhaps not any better.  But at least free elections began in 1990.

Next came Romania, which had been ruled for decades by the communist dictator Nicolae Ceausescu.  Massive demonstrations against his rule in December 1989 caused the army to join the people, and they captured Ceausescu as he attempted to flee with his wife.  They were executed on Christmas Day; the timing suggests that the revolutionaries were not good people themselves.  But at least free elections began in 1990.

Ceausescu opposed abortion, unlike most communists.  Ceausescu’s ban on abortion there had helped avoid many of the health problems caused by abortion.  Romanians had the lowest incidence of women’s breast cancer in the Western world, far lower than the United States.  In 1990, American families rushed to Romania to adopt babies who were available for adoption there.  But after Ceausescu was overthrown and abortion was legalized, Romania began promoting abortion.  The abortion-related health problem of breast cancer then skyrocketed.

Ceausescu opposed abortion, unlike most communists.  Ceausescu’s ban on abortion there had helped avoid many of the health problems caused by abortion.  Romanians had the lowest incidence of women’s breast cancer in the Western world, far lower than the United States.  In 1990, American families rushed to Romania to adopt babies who were available for adoption there.  But after Ceausescu was overthrown and abortion was legalized, Romania began promoting abortion.  The abortion-related health problem of breast cancer then skyrocketed.

The collapse of the communist dictatorship exposed underlying ethnic and religious conflict, particularly in Yugoslavia.  Its dictator, Marshall Tito (real name Josip Broz), ruled with an iron fist from 1945 to 1980, and the different ethnic groups could not fight each other as he suppressed all conflict.  He also insisted on some independence from the Soviet Union, and Stalin expelled him from the Soviet bloc in 1948.  Tito was succeeded in power by the Serb Slobodan Milosevic, which caused Slovenia and Croatia to seek independence due to their different ethnicity.  In June 1991, the Yugoslavian army attempted to suppress these independence movements.

The collapse of the communist dictatorship exposed underlying ethnic and religious conflict, particularly in Yugoslavia.  Its dictator, Marshall Tito (real name Josip Broz), ruled with an iron fist from 1945 to 1980, preventing the different ethnic groups from fighting each other because he suppressed all conflict.  He also insisted on some independence from the Soviet Union, and Stalin expelled him from the Soviet bloc in 1948.  Tito was succeeded in power by the Serb Slobodan Milosevic, which caused Slovenia and Croatia to seek independence due to their different ethnicity.  In June 1991, the Yugoslavian army attempted to suppress these independence movements.

Bloodshed continued in Croatia as the Serbs battled the Croats.  Eventually, the United States and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) intervened in 1999 in what is known as the Kosovo War or Kosovo Conflict, driving Milosevic from power and forcing his trial by an international tribunal.  He died of natural causes during a lengthy war crimes trial.

Bloodshed continued in Croatia as the Serbs battled the Croats.  Eventually, the United States and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) intervened in 1999 in what is known as the Kosovo War or Kosovo Conflict, driving Milosevic from power and forcing his trial by an international tribunal.  He died of natural causes during a lengthy "war crimes" trial.

Ethnic conflict was even worse in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which consists of Muslims, Croats and Serbs, who are Christian.  Bosnia-Herzegovina first declared its independence from Serbia, but the Christian Bosnian Serbs did not want to live under Muslim rule and a civil war began in March 1992 over whether Bosnia would split from Serbia.  Anti-Christian press accused the Serbs of “ethnic cleansing,” or racially motivated mass murders, as the Serbs were allegedly killing off Bosnian Muslims.  A peacekeeping army was sent by the United Nations and, in December 1995, the Muslims, Croats and Serbs signed a peace treaty.  In 1996 a three-person presidency including a leader from each group was elected.

Ethnic conflict was even worse in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which consists of Muslims, Croats and Serbs, who are Christian.  Bosnia-Herzegovina first declared its independence from Serbia, but the Christian Bosnian Serbs did not want to live under Muslim rule and a civil war began in March 1992 over whether Bosnia would split from Serbia.  Anti-Christian press accused the Serbs of “ethnic cleansing,” or racially motivated mass murders, as the Serbs were allegedly killing off Bosnian Muslims.  A peacekeeping army was sent by the United Nations.  In December 1995, the Muslims, Croats and Serbs signed a peace treaty.  In 1996 a three-person presidency including a leader from each group was elected.

=== Controversy of the United Nations Troops ===

=== Controversy of the United Nations Troops ===

The conflict in Bosnia caused the United Nations (U.N.) to send troops, including American soldiers, into the region in 1995.  Michael G. New was an American soldier who objected to wearing United Nations insignia as part of his military uniform during a deployment to the nearby Republic of Macedonia as part of the United Nations Preventive Deployment Force.  Michael New objected to changing his allegiance from the United States to the U.N.  When Michael New enlisted in the U.S. Army in February 1993, he took an oath to defend the U.S. Constitution and no recruiter or officer mentioned serving under U.N. command.  

The conflict in Bosnia caused the United Nations (U.N.) to send troops, including American soldiers, into the region in 1995.  Michael G. New was an American soldier who objected to wearing United Nations insignia as part of his military uniform during a deployment to the nearby Republic of Macedonia as part of the United Nations Preventive Deployment Force.  Michael New objected to changing his allegiance from the United States to the U.N.  When Michael New enlisted in the U.S. Army in February 1993, he took an oath to defend the U.S. Constitution, not the United Nations.

But on May 3, 1994, President Bill Clinton signed Presidential Decision Directive 25 (PDD-25).  This ordered submission of American troops to multilateral peace operations.  In July, Michael New was assigned to Germany, 3rd Infantry Division, and his company was told it would be sent to Macedonia as part of a “peacekeeping” mission.  In August 1995, Michael New was informed that his unit must wear part of the U.N. uniform.  Soldier New’s position was that the order was unlawful and unconstitutional.  Specifically, U.S. Constitution Article I, Section 9 prohibits any person’s acceptance of any emolument from a foreign state without congressional consent.  New also argued that the entire deployment as part of a United Nations force was unlawful.  

But on May 3, 1994, President Bill Clinton signed Presidential Decision Directive 25 (PDD-25).  This ordered submission of American troops to multilateral peace operations.  In July, Michael New was assigned to Germany, 3rd Infantry Division, and his company was told it would be sent to Macedonia as part of a “peacekeeping” mission.  In August 1995, Michael New was informed that his unit must wear part of the U.N. uniform.  Soldier New’s position was that the order was unlawful and unconstitutional.  Specifically, U.S. Constitution Article I, Section 9 prohibits any person’s acceptance of any emolument from a foreign state without congressional consent.  New also argued that the entire deployment as part of a United Nations force was unlawful.  

The nations of Latin America had won their political independence from European powers long before the 20th century.  But they have struggled in becoming economically independent.  It was not until the middle of the 20th century that Latin American nations began to export manufactured goods in addition to minerals and food.  In the 1970s and 1980s, huge debts to foreign powers combined with a depression caused severe economic problems.  Some blame lending policies of developed nations and their organizations, such as the World Bank, for causing this debt crisis.  After much loan forgiveness and an improved worldwide economy, Latin American nations had stronger economies and less dependence on foreign powers by the end of the 20th century.

The nations of Latin America had won their political independence from European powers long before the 20th century.  But they have struggled in becoming economically independent.  It was not until the middle of the 20th century that Latin American nations began to export manufactured goods in addition to minerals and food.  In the 1970s and 1980s, huge debts to foreign powers combined with a depression caused severe economic problems.  Some blame lending policies of developed nations and their organizations, such as the World Bank, for causing this debt crisis.  After much loan forgiveness and an improved worldwide economy, Latin American nations had stronger economies and less dependence on foreign powers by the end of the 20th century.

In one of the largest Latin American countries, Mexico, the rule of President Lazaro Cardenas from 1934 to 1940 redistributed land from the wealthy to peasants.  He also forced foreign investors to give up control over Mexican oil wells.

In Mexico, the rule of President Lazaro Cardenas from 1934 to 1940 redistributed land from the wealthy to peasants.  He also forced foreign investors to give up control over Mexican oil wells.

The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI for its Spanish initials) controlled Mexico from 1929 to 2000, when Vicente Fox of PAN (Partido Accion Nacional) was elected president.  The PRI was known for corruption and acting on behalf of wealthy Mexicans.

The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI for its Spanish initials) controlled Mexico from 1929 to 2000, when Vicente Fox of PAN (Partido Accion Nacional) was elected president.  The PRI was known for corruption and acting on behalf of wealthy Mexicans.

In another large Latin American nation, Argentina, the military has long controlled the government.  The most popular military ruler was Colonel Juan Peron, who was elected in 1946.  He became known for his “popular dictatorship.”  His wife, Eva Peron, was even more popular for her tremendous charisma.  Juan Peron ruled for over a decade, and brought industrialization and working class values to the nation.  He limited foreign ownership.  But critics felt Peron infringed too much on civil liberties.  He was deposed in 1955 but came back briefly in the 1970s.  In 1982, the military rulers of Argentina attempted to take the Falkland Islands, which are located off its shores in the Atlantic Ocean, from the British.  The British fought back with the help of American intelligence and regained control of the islands.

In Argentina, the military has long controlled the government.  The most popular military ruler was Colonel Juan Peron, who was elected in 1946.  He became known for his “popular dictatorship.”  His wife, Eva Peron, was even more popular for her tremendous charisma.  Juan Peron ruled for over a decade, and brought industrialization and working class values to the nation.  He limited foreign ownership.  But critics felt Peron infringed too much on civil liberties.  He was deposed in 1955 but came back briefly in the 1970s.  In 1982, the military rulers of Argentina attempted to take the Falkland Islands, which are located off its shores in the Atlantic Ocean, from the British.  The British fought back with the help of American intelligence and regained control of the islands.

== References ==

== References ==