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===The Sino-Japanese War: 1937-1945===

===The Sino-Japanese War: 1937-1945===

A determined campaign of assassination and coup attempts by ultranationalist junior officers left the Japanese leadership cowed by 1936. The budget for fiscal year 1937 proposed a 40 percent increase in spending, and a war was required to justify this increase to the Japanese public. Despite the alliance with Germany, the army leaders had no stomach for war with the Soviets. Instead, they suggested war with China, whose army was not nearly as formidable. The Nationalists and the Communists responded to the threat by forming a "Second United Front" in December 1936.

A determined campaign of assassination and coup attempts by ultranationalist junior officers left the Japanese leadership cowed by 1936. The budget for fiscal year 1937 proposed a 40 percent increase in spending, and a war was required to justify this increase to the Japanese public. Despite the alliance with Germany, the army leaders had no stomach for war with the Soviets. Instead, they suggested war with China, whose army was not nearly as formidable. The KMT and the Communists responded to this threat by forming a "Second United Front" in December 1936.

Despite the preparation, China was quickly overwhelmed when the Japanese finally launched their offensive in July 1937. Japan overran a vast region and cut off China's access to seaports. When Nanjing was captured, Japanese soldiers ran amok in a notorious episode and many Chinese were slaughtered. The Nationalists retreated to Chongqing in the southwest, the Communists to Yan'an in the northwest. A puppet state led by Wang, Chiang's old KMT rival and former head of the leftist Wuhan government, was set up in Nanjing in 1940.

Despite these preparations, China was quickly overwhelmed when the Japanese finally launched their offensive in July 1937. Japan overran a vast region and cut off China's access to seaports. When Nanjing was captured, Japanese soldiers ran amok in a notorious episode and many Chinese were slaughtered. The KMT retreated to Chongqing in the southwest, the Communists to Yan'an in the northwest. A puppet state led by Wang, Chiang's old KMT rival and former head of the leftist Wuhan government, was set up in Nanjing in 1940.

Anxious to counter the Japanese threat so he could focus on Hitler, Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with Chiang in August 1937. Stalin had no desire to repeat the bloody betrayals and double crosses of 1927. Chuikov, Stalin's man in China, was instructed to follow the agreement strictly.<ref>"Relevant treaties were concluded with Chiang Kai-shek's government," Stalin told Chuikov. "You will act in strict accordance with them." (''[http://books.google.com.tw/books?id=yCDv67C2BzkC&dq= The Soviet Union and Communist China, 1945-1950: The Arduous Road to the Alliance]'' by Dieter Heinzig, p. 21. "Any delivery of weapons from the USSR to the special region would be in violation of the agreement with central government in Chungking and would lead to the collapse of the anti-Japanese alliance," as Petr Vlasov, the Soviet representative in Yan'an explained.</ref> At this point, the Nationalists had about 2 million soldiers, the Chinese Communists about 100,000.<ref>Heinzig, p. 21.</ref> Bowing to Moscow's pressure, Communist leader [[Mao Zedong]] mounted the "Hundred Regiments Offensive" in late 1940. The Japanese responded with the savage "three all" reprisals ("kill all, burn all, and destroy all"). The Communists never seriously challenged them again.<ref>Hienzig, p. 30.</ref>  

Anxious to counter the Japanese threat so he could focus on Hitler, Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with Chiang in August 1937. Stalin had no desire to repeat the bloody betrayals and double crosses of 1927. Chuikov, Stalin's man in China, was instructed to follow the agreement strictly.<ref>"Relevant treaties were concluded with Chiang Kai-shek's government," Stalin told Chuikov. "You will act in strict accordance with them." (''[http://books.google.com.tw/books?id=yCDv67C2BzkC&dq= The Soviet Union and Communist China, 1945-1950: The Arduous Road to the Alliance]'' by Dieter Heinzig, p. 21. "Any delivery of weapons from the USSR to the special region would be in violation of the agreement with central government in Chungking and would lead to the collapse of the anti-Japanese alliance," as Petr Vlasov, the Soviet representative in Yan'an explained.</ref> At this point, the Nationalists had about 2 million soldiers, the Chinese Communists about 100,000.<ref>Heinzig, p. 21.</ref> Bowing to Moscow's pressure, Communist leader [[Mao Zedong]] mounted the "Hundred Regiments Offensive" in late 1940. The Japanese responded with the savage "three all" reprisals ("kill all, burn all, and destroy all"). The Communists never seriously challenged them again.<ref>Hienzig, p. 30.</ref>  

The Chinese cause received much sympathetic attention in the U.S. press, and the [[Flying Tigers]], a volunteer squadron of American aviators led by [[Claire Chennault]], was lionized. First Lady Song Meiling, a U.S.-educated Christian, was even more admired as a resistance leader. The Burma Road was built to allow U.S. "lend-lease" aid to reach the Chinese army. After the Japanese conquered Burma in 1942, supplies were flown over the Himalayas until the Ledo Road was completed in January 1945.

The Chinese cause received much sympathetic attention in the U.S. press, and the [[Flying Tigers]], a volunteer squadron of American aviators led by [[Claire Chennault]], was lionized. First Lady [[Song Meiling]], a U.S.-educated Christian, was even more admired as a resistance leader. The Burma Road was built to allow U.S. "lend-lease" aid to reach the Chinese army. After the Japanese conquered Burma in 1942, supplies were flown over the Himalayas until the Ledo Road was completed in January 1945.

U.S. General [[Joseph Stilwell]] was given nominal command of the Chinese army in 1942. His disputes with Chiang were epic. Like Seeckt and Falkenhausen before him, Stilwell wanted a smaller force trained to the standard of his own country's soldiers. He also accused Chiang of hording supplies for later use against the Communists. There is little evidence to support such claims. Some 98 percent of the supplies flown over "the Hump" went to U.S. forces in China.<ref name=Taylor>Jay Taylor, ''Stilwell's The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China'', pp. 271.</ref> The U.S. reequipped and retrained two elite Chinese armies, the X Force and the Y Force. The rest of the Nationalist army received a pittance, only a few hundred guns.<ref name="Taylor" /> The Y Force drove back the Japanese in Yunnan during a May–June 1944 offensive. Aside from this modest success, the U.S. had little to show for its extensive involvement in China.

U.S. General [[Joseph Stilwell]] was given nominal command of the Chinese army in 1942. His disputes with Chiang were epic. Like Seeckt and Falkenhausen before him, Stilwell wanted a smaller force trained to the standard of his own country's soldiers. He also accused Chiang of hording supplies for later use against the Communists. There is little evidence to support such claims. Some 98 percent of the supplies flown over "the Hump" went to U.S. forces in China.<ref name=Taylor>Jay Taylor, ''Stilwell's The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China'', pp. 271.</ref> The U.S. reequipped and retrained two elite Chinese armies, the X Force and the Y Force. The rest of the Nationalist army received a pittance, only a few hundred guns.<ref name="Taylor" /> The Y Force drove back the Japanese in Yunnan during a May–June 1944 offensive. Aside from this modest success, the U.S. had little to show for its extensive involvement in China.

The war ended victoriously all the same. Japan surrendered in August 1945 after a U.S. submarine campaign in the Pacific cut off the country's fuel and other supplies, and atomic bombs were dropped on two Japanese cities. Americans were left with sharply divided views of China. Stilwell's rivalry with Chiang and Chennault was a prelude to years of poisonous political dispute.

The war ended victoriously all the same. Japan surrendered in August 1945 after a U.S. submarine campaign in the Pacific cut off the country's fuel and other supplies, and atomic bombs were dropped on two Japanese cities. Americans were left with sharply divided views of China. Stilwell's rivalry with Chiang and Chennault was a prelude to years of poisonous political dispute.

===Chinese Civil War: 1946-1949===

===Civil War: 1946-1949===

The Soviets had supported the Nationalists in the war against Japan and maintained a friendly attitude for some time even after Japan surrendered. They signed a "Treaty of Friendship and Alliance" concerning the status of Mongolia in August 1945. But as the Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet Union developed, this policy was reversed. The Soviets occupied Manchuria in August 1945, where the main Japanese forces and supplies had been maintained. This region was systematically looted, with entire factories transported to Russia. The Chinese Communists were based is the North at this time, while the Nationalists were in Chongqing in the southwest. These two factors gave the Communists the advantage in picking up the spoils of war. The communist army had been a minor factor during the war with Japan, but its manpower expanded dramatically as soldiers from the puppet armies defected.  

The Soviets had supported the Nationalists in the war against Japan and maintained a friendly attitude for some time even after Japan surrendered. They signed a "Treaty of Friendship and Alliance" concerning the status of Mongolia in August 1945. But as the Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet Union developed, this policy was reversed. The Soviets occupied Manchuria in August 1945, where the main Japanese forces and supplies had been maintained. This region was systematically looted, with entire factories transported to Russia. The Chinese Communists were based is the North at this time, while the Nationalists were in Chongqing in the southwest. These two factors gave the Communists the advantage in picking up the spoils of war. The communist army had been a minor factor during the war with Japan, but its manpower expanded dramatically as soldiers from the puppet armies defected.  

===Nationalists on Taiwan: 1949-present===

===Nationalists on Taiwan: 1949-present===

On December 10, 1949, Chiang flew from Chengdu, the last Nationalist bastion on the mainland, to Taiwan and proclaimed Taipei a provisional capital. Despite its vastly reduced territory, Chiang's regime continued to receive diplomatic recognition from the United Nations and from most non-Communist states. The U.N. Security Council has five permanent seats, one of which is assigned to the Republic of China. In 1971, Taipei was expelled from the U.N. and the ROC seat was reassigned to Beijing.

On December 10, 1949, Chiang flew from Chengdu, the last KMT bastion on the mainland, to Taiwan and proclaimed Taipei a provisional capital. Despite its vastly reduced territory, Chiang's regime continued to receive diplomatic recognition from the United Nations and from most non-Communist states. The U.N. Security Council has five permanent seats, one of which is assigned to the Republic of China. In 1971, Taipei was expelled from the U.N. and China's seat was reassigned to Beijing.

In 1991, the Temporary Provisions were terminated, the claim to territory on the mainland was withdrawn, and legislators selected in the 1940s to represent mainland districts retired.<ref>"The authorities on Taiwan in 1991 abandoned their claim of governing mainland China, stating that they do not "dispute the fact that the P.R.C. controls mainland China." ("[http://www.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/taiwan/15536.htm Taiwan (10/00): Profile], U.S. Department of State.) The map on the [http://english.president.gov.tw/ presidential website] makes no claim to territory on the mainland. The long-form name of the country is given as "Republic of China (Taiwan)."</ref>

In 1991, the Temporary Provisions were terminated, the claim to territory on the mainland was withdrawn, and legislators selected in the 1940s to represent mainland districts retired.<ref>"The authorities on Taiwan in 1991 abandoned their claim of governing mainland China, stating that they do not "dispute the fact that the P.R.C. controls mainland China." ("[http://www.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/taiwan/15536.htm Taiwan (10/00): Profile], U.S. Department of State.) The map on the [http://english.president.gov.tw/ presidential website] makes no claim to territory on the mainland. The long-form name of the country is given as "Republic of China (Taiwan)."</ref>