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|piccap=The Republic adopted this red, white, and blue flag when the KMT came to power in 1927.

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|s=中华民国

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|t=中華民國

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|w=Chung-hua Min-kuo

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The '''Republic of China''' was an era of Chinese history that extended from 1912 until 1949. It was preceded by the [[Qing dynasty]] and followed by the [[People's Republic of China|People's Republic]]. The country was divided among rival warlord cliques in the 1920s, but reunited by the Nationalist Party, or KMT, in 1928. The KMT moved the capital from [[Beijing]] in the North to [[Nanjing]], a city near [[Shanghai]] in eastern China. Shanghai was the Republic's metropolis and an international city. This party had been founded by [[Sun Yat-sen]] and was later led by [[Chiang Kai-shek]]. Much of China was occupied by Japan from 1937 until 1945. In World War II, American pilots flew [[lend-lease]] aid to Nationalist China across the Himalayas ("the Hump"). The Republic was a pivotal era of Chinese history that included modernization of culture and gender roles, economic development, World War II, civil war, and Communist conquest. When the Communists gained control of the mainland in 1949, the KMT fled to [[Taiwan]].

The '''Republic of China''' was an era of Chinese history that extended from 1912 until 1949. It was preceded by the [[Qing dynasty]] and followed by the [[People's Republic of China|People's Republic]]. The country was divided among rival warlord cliques in the 1920s, but reunited by the Nationalist Party, or KMT, in 1928. The Nationalists moved the capital from [[Beijing]] in the North to [[Nanjing]], a city near [[Shanghai]] in eastern China. Shanghai was the Republic's metropolis and an international city. This party had been founded by [[Sun Yat-sen]] and was later led by [[Chiang Kai-shek]]. Much of China was occupied by Japan from 1937 until 1945. In World War II, American pilots flew [[lend-lease]] aid to Nationalist China across the Himalayas ("the Hump"). The Republic was a pivotal era of Chinese history that included modernization of culture and gender roles, economic development, World War II, civil war, and Communist conquest. When the Communists gained control of the mainland in 1949, the Nationalists fled to [[Taiwan]].

==Overthrow of the monarchy==

==Overthrow of the monarchy==

After Yuan died in 1916, the officers of the Beiyang army divided into rival cliques. Puyi, the former Qing emperor, was briefly restored in 1917. It took eleven days for Premier Duan Qirui, leader of the pro-Japanese Anhui clique, to defeated the imperialists and reinstate the republic. In 1920, the Zhili clique defeated Anhui's forces and Duan was ousted. Zhili warlord Cao Kun gained the presidency in 1923 by paying out bribes of 5,000 silver dollars each to members of the National Assembly. Not reconciled to Zhili's ascendency, the Japanese backed the rival Fengtian clique led by Zhang Zuolin, the pro-Japanese warlord of Manchuria appointed by Yuan. In October 1924, a Zhili commander defected, marched into Beijing, and evicted Puyi from the Forbidden City. The Beijing coup soon collapsed, but Zhili had lost its advantage in the war with Fengtian.

After Yuan died in 1916, the officers of the Beiyang army divided into rival cliques. Puyi, the former Qing emperor, was briefly restored in 1917. It took eleven days for Premier Duan Qirui, leader of the pro-Japanese Anhui clique, to defeated the imperialists and reinstate the republic. In 1920, the Zhili clique defeated Anhui's forces and Duan was ousted. Zhili warlord Cao Kun gained the presidency in 1923 by paying out bribes of 5,000 silver dollars each to members of the National Assembly. Not reconciled to Zhili's ascendency, the Japanese backed the rival Fengtian clique led by Zhang Zuolin, the pro-Japanese warlord of Manchuria appointed by Yuan. In October 1924, a Zhili commander defected, marched into Beijing, and evicted Puyi from the Forbidden City. The Beijing coup soon collapsed, but Zhili had lost its advantage in the war with Fengtian.

The fighting in 1924 was far more destructive than earlier disputes among the warlords, leaving many Chinese fed up with the warlords. In November, Duan was named president. This time around, Duan was no longer a clique leader, but rather a stalking horse for Zhang. Politically, Zhang's Manchuria was a world apart from the rest of China. While southern and eastern China had liberalized as a result of the May Fourth Movement, Manchurians still dreamed of an imperial restoration and honored Puyi. A Manchurian warlord at the helm was the last straw for many. There was massive public support for the KMT's May Thirtieth protests in 1925. As China's internationally recognized government, Beijing still received the revenue of the Chinese Maritime Customs Service, which had international management. But Manchuria had long been overtaxed to support Zhang's adventurism. The customs revenue was not enough to prevent an economic collapse in 1927–1928.

The fighting in 1924 was far more destructive than earlier disputes among the warlords, leaving many Chinese fed up with the warlords. In November, Duan was named president. This time around, Duan was no longer a clique leader, but rather a stalking horse for Zhang. Politically, Zhang's Manchuria was a world apart from the rest of China. While southern and eastern China had liberalized as a result of the May Fourth Movement, Manchurians still dreamed of an imperial restoration and honored Puyi. A Manchurian warlord at the helm was the last straw for many. There was massive public support for the Nationalist's May Thirtieth protests in 1925. As China's internationally recognized government, Beijing still received the revenue of the Chinese Maritime Customs Service, which had international management. But Manchuria had long been overtaxed to support Zhang's adventurism. The customs revenue was not enough to prevent an economic collapse in 1927–1928.

==Culture and fashion==

==Culture and fashion==

==Nationalist China: 1925-1971==

==Nationalist China: 1925-1971==

===Nationalist Revolution: 1923-1928===

===Nationalist Revolution: 1923-1928===

Meanwhile in the South, the KMT, which had been revived in 1917, was built up by the Soviets. While [[Comintern]] agents supplied the party with money and weapons, the purpose of Soviet policy in China was debated in the Kremlin. Trotsky advocated a revolutionary line and condemned the KMT as reactionary. Pragmatists emphasized the need for a strong KMT to counter Japanese influence in the North. A "United Front" was formed between the Nationalists and the communists in 1923. The Whampoa Military Academy, established in 1924, trained a new generation of officers to put nation before clique. Sun died in March 1925. He was succeed by a triumvirate that included leftist Wang Jingwei and conservative Hu Hanmin. In July, the party proclaimed its Guangzhou-based regime a "national government," i.e. an alternative to the internationally-recognized Beijing regime. In the Northern Expedition of 1926-1928, [[Chiang Kai-shek]] led the KMT to a surprisingly easy victory over the far larger, but now bankrupt, forces of the Beiyang warlords.

Meanwhile in the South, the Nationalist Party, which had been revived in 1917, was built up by the Soviets. While [[Comintern]] agents supplied the party with money and weapons, the purpose of Soviet policy in China was debated in the Kremlin. Trotsky advocated a revolutionary line and condemned the Nationalists as reactionary. Pragmatists emphasized the need for a strong China to counter Japanese influence in the North. A "United Front" was formed between the Nationalists and the communists in 1923. The Whampoa Military Academy, established in 1924, trained a new generation of officers to put nation before clique. Sun died in March 1925. He was succeed by a triumvirate that included leftist Wang Jingwei and conservative Hu Hanmin. In July, the party proclaimed its Guangzhou-based regime a "national government," i.e. an alternative to the internationally-recognized Beijing regime. In the Northern Expedition of 1926-1928, [[Chiang Kai-shek]] led the Nationalists to a surprisingly easy victory over the far larger, but now bankrupt, forces of the Beiyang warlords.

By the time the Nationalists arrived in Shanghai in April 1927, communist attacks on "class enemies" and foreigners had provoked a backlash. Shanghai's communist-led labor unions prepared a seizure of the French Concession and the International Settlement, protected by Britain. The French and British were Russia's enemies, not China's. Fearing a military response, Chiang initiated a bloody purge, not only against leftists in Shanghai, but in other urban centers as well. Hu supported Chiang, but Wang continued the United Front in Wuhan. After the Wuhan Nationalists intercepted a message from Moscow authorizing a coup, they too purged the communists in July. The two wings of the KMT were reunited and the capital was moved to Nanjing in September. The communists fled to the countryside where they staged the "Autumn Harvest" uprisings in August and October. There was a brief but savage coup in Guangzhou in December. By the end of year, most of the communists had been killed or defected. The rest had been driven into the mountains or the interior.

By the time the Nationalists arrived in Shanghai in April 1927, communist attacks on "class enemies" and foreigners had provoked a backlash. Shanghai's communist-led labor unions prepared a seizure of the French Concession and the International Settlement, protected by Britain. The French and British were Russia's enemies, not China's. Fearing a military response, Chiang initiated a bloody purge, not only against leftists in Shanghai, but in other urban centers as well. Hu supported Chiang, but Wang continued the United Front in Wuhan. After the Wuhan Nationalists intercepted a message from Moscow authorizing a coup, they too purged the communists in July. The two wings of the Nationalist Party were reunited and the capital was moved to Nanjing in September. The communists fled to the countryside where they staged the "Autumn Harvest" uprisings in August and October. There was a brief but savage coup in Guangzhou in December. By the end of year, most of the communists had been killed or defected. The rest had been driven into the mountains or the interior.

The Beijing government dissolved in late May 1928 as Chiang's forces approached, and Zhang fled to Manchuria in early June. Furious with his failure to stop Chiang’s advance, the Japanese murdered Zhang when he arrived in Mukden. The United States recognized Nationalist China in July, the first nation to do.<ref>''[http://books.google.com.vn/books?id=HuB6gPHeP_cC&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false China White Paper: August 1949]'', p. 12.</ref> The U.S. also signed a treaty with Nanjing restoring China's tariff autonomy. In December, Zhang Xueliang, Zhang Zuolin's son, agreed to fly the Nationalist flag in Manchuria and China was reunited, at least nominally.

The Beijing government dissolved in late May 1928 as Chiang's forces approached, and Zhang fled to Manchuria in early June. Furious with his failure to stop Chiang’s advance, the Japanese murdered Zhang when he arrived in Mukden. The United States recognized Nationalist China in July, the first nation to do.<ref>''[http://books.google.com.vn/books?id=HuB6gPHeP_cC&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false China White Paper: August 1949]'', p. 12.</ref> The U.S. also signed a treaty with Nanjing restoring China's tariff autonomy. In December, Zhang Xueliang, Zhang Zuolin's son, agreed to fly the Nationalist flag in Manchuria and China was reunited, at least nominally.

===The Sino-Japanese War: 1937-1945===

===The Sino-Japanese War: 1937-1945===

A determined campaign of assassination and coup attempts by ultranationalist junior officers left the Japanese leadership cowed by 1936. The budget for fiscal year 1937 proposed a 40 percent increase in spending, and a war was required to justify this increase to the Japanese public. Despite the alliance with Germany, the army leaders had no stomach for war with the Soviets. Instead, they suggested war with China, whose army was not nearly as formidable. The KMT and the Communists responded to this threat by forming a "Second United Front" in December 1936.

A determined campaign of assassination and coup attempts by ultranationalist junior officers left the Japanese leadership cowed by 1936. The budget for fiscal year 1937 proposed a 40 percent increase in spending, and a war was required to justify this increase to the Japanese public. Despite the alliance with Germany, the army leaders had no stomach for war with the Soviets. Instead, they suggested war with China, whose army was not nearly as formidable. The Nationalists and the Communists responded to this threat by forming a "Second United Front" in December 1936.

Despite these preparations, China was quickly overwhelmed when the Japanese finally launched their offensive in July 1937. Japan overran a vast region and cut off China's access to seaports. When Nanjing was captured, Japanese soldiers ran amok in a notorious episode and many Chinese were slaughtered. The KMT retreated to Chongqing in the southwest, the Communists to Yan'an in the northwest. A puppet state led by Wang, Chiang's old KMT rival and former head of the leftist Wuhan government, was set up in Nanjing in 1940.

Despite these preparations, China was quickly overwhelmed when the Japanese finally launched their offensive in July 1937. Japan overran a vast region and cut off China's access to seaports. When Nanjing was captured, Japanese soldiers ran amok in a notorious episode and many Chinese were slaughtered. The Nationalists retreated to Chongqing in the southwest, the Communists to Yan'an in the northwest. A puppet state led by Wang, former head of the leftist Wuhan government, was set up in Nanjing in 1940.

Anxious to counter the Japanese threat so he could focus on Hitler, Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with Chiang in August 1937. Stalin had no desire to repeat the bloody betrayals and double crosses of 1927. Chuikov, Stalin's man in China, was instructed to follow the agreement strictly.<ref>"Relevant treaties were concluded with Chiang Kai-shek's government," Stalin told Chuikov. "You will act in strict accordance with them." (''[http://books.google.com.tw/books?id=yCDv67C2BzkC&dq= The Soviet Union and Communist China, 1945-1950: The Arduous Road to the Alliance]'' by Dieter Heinzig, p. 21. "Any delivery of weapons from the USSR to the special region would be in violation of the agreement with central government in Chungking and would lead to the collapse of the anti-Japanese alliance," as Petr Vlasov, the Soviet representative in Yan'an explained.</ref> At this point, the Nationalists had about 2 million soldiers, the Chinese Communists about 100,000.<ref>Heinzig, p. 21.</ref> Bowing to Moscow's pressure, Communist leader [[Mao Zedong]] mounted the "Hundred Regiments Offensive" in late 1940. The Japanese responded with the savage "three all" reprisals ("kill all, burn all, and destroy all"). The Communists never seriously challenged them again.<ref>Hienzig, p. 30.</ref>  

Anxious to counter the Japanese threat so he could focus on Hitler, Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with Chiang in August 1937. Stalin had no desire to repeat the bloody betrayals and double crosses of 1927. Chuikov, Stalin's man in China, was instructed to follow the agreement strictly.<ref>"Relevant treaties were concluded with Chiang Kai-shek's government," Stalin told Chuikov. "You will act in strict accordance with them." (''[http://books.google.com.tw/books?id=yCDv67C2BzkC&dq= The Soviet Union and Communist China, 1945-1950: The Arduous Road to the Alliance]'' by Dieter Heinzig, p. 21. "Any delivery of weapons from the USSR to the special region would be in violation of the agreement with central government in Chungking and would lead to the collapse of the anti-Japanese alliance," as Petr Vlasov, the Soviet representative in Yan'an explained.</ref> At this point, the Nationalists had about 2 million soldiers, the Chinese Communists about 100,000.<ref>Heinzig, p. 21.</ref> Bowing to Moscow's pressure, Communist leader [[Mao Zedong]] mounted the "Hundred Regiments Offensive" in late 1940. The Japanese responded with the savage "three all" reprisals ("kill all, burn all, and destroy all"). The Communists never seriously challenged them again.<ref>Hienzig, p. 30.</ref>  

===Nationalists on Taiwan: 1949-present===

===Nationalists on Taiwan: 1949-present===

On December 10, 1949, Chiang flew from Chengdu, the last KMT bastion on the mainland, to Taiwan and proclaimed Taipei a provisional capital. Despite its vastly reduced territory, Chiang's regime continued to receive diplomatic recognition from the United Nations and from most non-Communist states. The U.N. Security Council has five permanent seats, one of which is assigned to the Republic of China. In 1971, Taipei was expelled from the U.N. and China's seat was reassigned to Beijing.

On December 10, 1949, Chiang flew from Chengdu, the last Nationalists bastion on the mainland, to Taiwan and proclaimed Taipei a provisional capital. Despite its vastly reduced territory, Chiang's regime continued to receive diplomatic recognition from the United Nations and from most non-Communist states. The U.N. Security Council has five permanent seats, one of which is assigned to the Republic of China. In 1971, Taipei was expelled from the U.N. and China's seat was reassigned to Beijing.

In 1991, the Temporary Provisions were terminated, the claim to territory on the mainland was withdrawn, and legislators selected in the 1940s to represent mainland districts retired.<ref>"The authorities on Taiwan in 1991 abandoned their claim of governing mainland China, stating that they do not "dispute the fact that the P.R.C. controls mainland China." ("[http://www.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/taiwan/15536.htm Taiwan (10/00): Profile], U.S. Department of State.) The map on the [http://english.president.gov.tw/ presidential website] makes no claim to territory on the mainland. The long-form name of the country is given as "Republic of China (Taiwan)."</ref>

In 1991, the Temporary Provisions were terminated, the claim to territory on the mainland was withdrawn, and legislators selected in the 1940s to represent mainland districts retired.<ref>"The authorities on Taiwan in 1991 abandoned their claim of governing mainland China, stating that they do not "dispute the fact that the P.R.C. controls mainland China." ("[http://www.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/taiwan/15536.htm Taiwan (10/00): Profile], U.S. Department of State.) The map on the [http://english.president.gov.tw/ presidential website] makes no claim to territory on the mainland. The long-form name of the country is given as "Republic of China (Taiwan)."</ref>