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(1953-1961).<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/faq/faq-5star.htm "General of the Army," the highest American military rank, is a 5-star general, comparable in rank to field marshal; there have been only five in history.] </ref>    He first commanded Allied (British and American) troops invading North Africa in 1942 and Italy 1943, then became the Supreme Allied Commander of the forces that invaded Normandy on [[D-Day]], June 6, 1944, and defeated the Germans in the West.

(1953-1961).<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/faq/faq-5star.htm "General of the Army," the highest American military rank, is a 5-star general, comparable in rank to field marshal; there have been only five in history.] </ref>    He first commanded Allied (British and American) troops invading North Africa in 1942 and Italy 1943, then became the Supreme Allied Commander of the forces that invaded Normandy on [[D-Day]], June 6, 1944, and defeated the Germans in the West.

As the great American hero of the war, both parties wanted him as a presidential candidate. He kept out of politics until 1952, but was increasing hostile to the liberalism and corruption of the [[Harry S. Truman|Truman Administration]]. In 1952 Ike argued for a vigorous anti-Communist foreign policy in defeating the isolationist Senator [[Robert A. Taft]] for the [[Republican Party|Republican nomination]] and was elected by a landslide. As president he followed conservative economic policies recommended by Taft, but continued what was left of the New Deal and expanded Social Security. In foreign policy he kept the containment policy in the [[Cold War]] and ended the [[Korean War]]. Eisenhower  sponsored the [[Highway#U.S. Interstate Highway System|Interstate Highway System]], signed the first civil rights bill in 82 years, and promoted domestic policies known as "dynamic conservatism".  He repeatedly warned against deficit spending but launched no great moral crusade, nor did he engage in an idealistic pursuit of some overriding national goal. Critics led by Democrat [[John F. Kennedy]] charged that Eisenhower was quite content to preside over a fat, happy, satisfied nation that devoted itself to the good life. Eisenhower largely ignored partisan politics, leaving that to his Vice President [[Richard Nixon]], who was defeated in 1960 by Kennedy when he tried to run on the achievements of the Eisenhower administration.

As the great American hero of the war, both parties wanted him as a presidential candidate. He kept out of politics until 1952, but was increasing hostile to the liberalism and corruption of the [[Harry S. Truman|Truman Administration]]. In 1952 Ike argued for a vigorous [[anti-Communist]] foreign policy in defeating the isolationist Senator [[Robert A. Taft]] for the [[Republican Party|Republican nomination]] and was elected by a landslide. As president he followed conservative economic policies recommended by Taft, but continued what was left of the [[New Deal]] and expanded [[Social Security]]. In foreign policy he kept the containment policy in the [[Cold War]] and ended the [[Korean War]]. Eisenhower  sponsored the [[Highway#U.S. Interstate Highway System|Interstate Highway System]], signed the first civil rights bill in 82 years, and promoted domestic policies known as "dynamic conservatism".  He repeatedly warned against deficit spending but launched no great moral crusade, nor did he engage in an idealistic pursuit of some overriding national goal. Critics led by Democrat [[John F. Kennedy]] charged that Eisenhower was quite content to preside over a fat, happy, satisfied nation that devoted itself to the good life. Eisenhower largely ignored partisan politics, leaving that to his Vice President [[Richard Nixon]], who was defeated in 1960 by Kennedy when he tried to run on the achievements of the Eisenhower administration.

 

==Early career==

==Early career==

Eisenhower was born David Dwight Eisenhower in Denison, Texas, on Oct. 14, 1890 of Pennsylvania Dutch heritage. The name his parents gave him at that time was David Dwight Eisenhower - a name that wasn't switched to its more familiar form until the time of Eisenhower's enrollment at West Point.  His father, David Jacob Eisenhower, was of Bavarian Mennonite descent; his mother, Ida Elizabeth (Stover) Eisenhower, was of Swiss descent. The families of both parents came to America prior to 1750. Three hundred "River Brethren," including his father, moved to farms in Kansas in the 1880s.  His parents were college educated, but lost their inheritance and lived poor working class lives in Abilene (apart from a short stay in Texas where Ike was born).  Ike maintained close ties with Abilene his entire life. There he grew up in an environment of strong family religious traditions; his father was distant, known only as a harsh disciplinarian, but his mother had a level of activism and a sparkle in her eye that Ike inherited.  In the 1890s his parents left the Mennonites to join the [[Jehovah Witness]] religion, a highly controversial group because of its refusal to salute the flag. His mother was a leader of the Witnesses but Eisenhower was never a member.<ref>Gerald Bergman, "The Influence of Religion on President Eisenhower's Upbringing" ''Journal of American & Comparative Cultures'' (2000) 23(4): 89-107. Issn: 1537-4726 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]; As President Eisenhower was baptized into the Presbyterian church--the only president to be baptized while in office. [http://www.classroomhelp.com/lessons/Presidents/eisenhower.html see source]</ref> Eisenhower had six brothers; they all had successful careers. The oldest, Arthur, became a banker; Edgar a lawyer; Roy a pharmacist; Earl an electrical engineer; and Milton a [[New Deal]] official, became president the Johns Hopkins University and a close adviser to Ike.  

Eisenhower was born David Dwight Eisenhower in Denison, Texas, on Oct. 14, 1890 of Pennsylvania Dutch heritage. The name his parents gave him at that time was David Dwight Eisenhower - a name that wasn't switched to its more familiar form until the time of Eisenhower's enrollment at West Point.  His father, David Jacob Eisenhower, was of Bavarian Mennonite descent; his mother, Ida Elizabeth (Stover) Eisenhower, was of Swiss descent. The families of both parents came to America prior to 1750. Three hundred "River Brethren," including his father, moved to farms in Kansas in the 1880s.  His parents were college educated, but lost their inheritance and lived poor working class lives in Abilene (apart from a short stay in Texas where Ike was born).  Ike maintained close ties with Abilene his entire life. There he grew up in an environment of strong family religious traditions; his father was distant, known only as a harsh disciplinarian, but his mother had a level of activism and a sparkle in her eye that Ike inherited.  In the 1890s his parents left the Mennonites to join the [[Jehovah Witness]] religion, a highly controversial group because of its refusal to salute the flag. His mother was a leader of the Witnesses but Eisenhower was never a member.<ref>Gerald Bergman, "The Influence of Religion on President Eisenhower's Upbringing" ''Journal of American & Comparative Cultures'' (2000) 23(4): 89-107. Issn: 1537-4726 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]; As President Eisenhower was baptized into the Presbyterian church--the only president to be baptized while in office. [http://www.classroomhelp.com/lessons/Presidents/eisenhower.html see source]</ref> Eisenhower had six brothers; they all had successful careers. The oldest, Arthur, became a banker; Edgar a lawyer; Roy a pharmacist; Earl an electrical engineer; and Milton a [[New Deal]] official, became president the Johns Hopkins University and a close adviser to Ike.  

Eisenhower tried to privatize federally provided electric power, which he viewed as inefficient and as a form of 'creeping socialism.' Eisenhower, however, had a difficult time dismantling public energy services due to the New Deal legacies of the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]] (TVA) and the [[Rural Electrification Administration]] (REA), which provided cheap power to millions of people and had bipartisan support. Eisenhower did not completely destroy public energy utilities; rather, he contained them, limiting the geographical expansion and funding of the TVA and allowing private investors access to new sources of hydroelectric power, as well as the development of nuclear power.<ref> Wyatt Wells, "Public Power in the Eisenhower Administration" ''Journal of Policy History'' 2008 20(2): 227-262 in [[EBSCO]] </ref>  

Eisenhower tried to privatize federally provided electric power, which he viewed as inefficient and as a form of 'creeping socialism.' Eisenhower, however, had a difficult time dismantling public energy services due to the New Deal legacies of the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]] (TVA) and the [[Rural Electrification Administration]] (REA), which provided cheap power to millions of people and had bipartisan support. Eisenhower did not completely destroy public energy utilities; rather, he contained them, limiting the geographical expansion and funding of the TVA and allowing private investors access to new sources of hydroelectric power, as well as the development of nuclear power.<ref> Wyatt Wells, "Public Power in the Eisenhower Administration" ''Journal of Policy History'' 2008 20(2): 227-262 in [[EBSCO]] </ref>  

===McCarthy===

===McCarthy===

Republican Senator [[Joe McCarthy]] transformed the national discourse to a focus on internal treason by charging in 1950 that Roosevelt had allowed Soviet spies into the government (such as [[Alger Hiss]]), and that by protecting them Truman was guilty of "20 years of treason."  When Eisenhower was elected McCarthy turned his attention to Eisenhower's administration and hinted at "21 years of treason."  His main case was a reserve dentist who was recalled to active duty and promoted to major, even though he was a member of the Communist party. "Who promoted Major Peress??" he shouted. Eisenhower would not tolerate government employees who failed loyalty or security standards, but stressed his support for civil liberties and proper procedures. He succeeded in using behind-the-scenes tactics to undermine McCarthy, particularly after January 1954 when the senator took on the US Army. Eisenhower's shrewd plan included making political speeches about what his administration had done to remove Communists from the executive branch. Among other things, the president denied McCarthy access to certain White House documents, supported anti-McCarthy Republicans in the Senate, and publicly denounced McCarthy's methods without naming the senator.  In October, 1954, the Senate censured McCarthy for bringing disgrace on that body, and he disappeared from the scene.<ref> Michael J. Birkner, "Eisenhower and the Red Menace." ''Prologue: Quarterly of the National Archives and Records Administration'' (2001) 33(3): 196-207. Issn: 0033-1031 </ref>

Republican Senator [[Joe McCarthy]] transformed the national discourse to a focus on internal treason by charging in 1950 that Roosevelt had allowed Soviet spies into the government (such as [[Alger Hiss]]), and that by protecting them Truman was guilty of "20 years of treason."  When Eisenhower was elected McCarthy turned his attention to Eisenhower's administration and hinted at "21 years of treason."  His main case was a reserve dentist who was recalled to active duty and promoted to major, even though he was a member of the Communist party. "Who promoted Major Peress??" he shouted. Eisenhower would not tolerate government employees who failed loyalty or security standards, but stressed his support for civil liberties and proper procedures. He succeeded in using behind-the-scenes tactics to undermine McCarthy, particularly after January 1954 when the senator took on the US Army. Eisenhower's shrewd plan included making political speeches about what his administration had done to remove Communists from the executive branch. Among other things, the president denied McCarthy access to certain White House documents, supported anti-McCarthy Republicans in the Senate, and publicly denounced McCarthy's methods without naming the senator.  In October, 1954, the Senate censured McCarthy for bringing disgrace on that body, and he disappeared from the scene.<ref> Michael J. Birkner, "Eisenhower and the Red Menace." ''Prologue: Quarterly of the National Archives and Records Administration'' (2001) 33(3): 196-207. Issn: 0033-1031 </ref>

===Foreign policy and the military===

===Foreign policy and the military===

Viewing the limited war in Korea as a mistake, Eisenhower believed that American national security and containment of Communist expansion could best be achieved through nuclear deterrence and the utilization of other assets, such as negotiations, psychological warfare and economic aid.  Eisenhower worried that excessive defense spending would weaken the economy in the long-run, and thus be counterproductive. His "New Look" strategy economized by cutting back on Army divisions (much to the chagrin of the soldiers), and emphasizing instead nuclear weapons, which gave "more bang for the buck."<ref>Saki Dockrill, "Dealing with Soviet Power and Influence: Eisenhower's Management of U.S. National Security." ''Diplomatic History'' (2000) 24(2): 345-352. Issn: 0145-2096 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>   

Viewing the limited war in [[Korea]] as a mistake, Eisenhower believed that American national security and containment of Communist expansion could best be achieved through nuclear deterrence and the utilization of other assets, such as negotiations, psychological warfare and economic aid.  Eisenhower worried that excessive defense spending would weaken the economy in the long-run, and thus be counterproductive. His "New Look" strategy economized by cutting back on Army divisions (much to the chagrin of the soldiers), and emphasizing instead nuclear weapons, which gave "more bang for the buck."<ref>Saki Dockrill, "Dealing with Soviet Power and Influence: Eisenhower's Management of U.S. National Security." ''Diplomatic History'' (2000) 24(2): 345-352. Issn: 0145-2096 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>   

[[Image:K-TRUCE53.JPG|thumb|400px|left|Ike ends the Korean war, July 1953]]

[[Image:K-TRUCE53.JPG|thumb|400px|left|Ike ends the Korean war, July 1953]]

====Middle East====

====Middle East====

Concerned over Communist subversion, Eisenhower created the '''Eisenhower Doctrine''' to support pro-Western Arab governments. At first the United States did not distinguish between Communism and radical Arab nationalism, perceiving Egyptian president [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] as linked to Soviet encroachment. The political situation grew complex as radicals challenged the Lebanese and Jordanian governments, and the ruler of Iraq was brutally overthrown. In 1958 Eisenhower sent Marines to Lebanon to support the government but balked at British plans for greater military intervention.<ref> Douglas Little, "His Finest Hour? Eisenhower, Lebanon, and the 1958 Middle East Crisis." ''Diplomatic History'' (1996) 20(1): 27-54. Issn: 0145-2096 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>  Eisenhower and Secretary of State [[John Foster Dulles]] eventually focused their strategy by distinguishing between Communism and Arab nationalism. The United States was able to limit its goals, accommodate itself to Nasser, and display a greater flexibility than the Eisenhower Doctrine originally offered.  At the same time relations with Israel were greatly strengthened, which annoyed America's Arab allies.<ref> Jeffrey M. Nadaner, "Strife among Friends and Foes: the 1958 Anglo-American Military Interventions in the Middle East." ''UCLA Historical Journal'' (1997) 17: 82-123. Issn: 0276-864x </ref>

Concerned over Communist [[subversion]], Eisenhower created the '''Eisenhower Doctrine''' to support pro-Western Arab governments. At first the United States did not distinguish between Communism and radical Arab nationalism, perceiving Egyptian president [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] as linked to Soviet encroachment. The political situation grew complex as radicals challenged the Lebanese and Jordanian governments, and the ruler of Iraq was brutally overthrown. In 1958 Eisenhower sent Marines to Lebanon to support the government but balked at British plans for greater military intervention.<ref> Douglas Little, "His Finest Hour? Eisenhower, Lebanon, and the 1958 Middle East Crisis." ''Diplomatic History'' (1996) 20(1): 27-54. Issn: 0145-2096 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>  Eisenhower and Secretary of State [[John Foster Dulles]] eventually focused their strategy by distinguishing between Communism and Arab nationalism. The United States was able to limit its goals, accommodate itself to Nasser, and display a greater flexibility than the Eisenhower Doctrine originally offered.  At the same time relations with Israel were greatly strengthened, which annoyed America's Arab allies.<ref> Jeffrey M. Nadaner, "Strife among Friends and Foes: the 1958 Anglo-American Military Interventions in the Middle East." ''UCLA Historical Journal'' (1997) 17: 82-123. Issn: 0276-864x </ref>

====Guatemala====

====Guatemala====

Scholars have spent a half century debating why the Eisenhower administration helped the Guatemalan army overthrow the Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán left-wing anti-American government in Guatemala in 1954. They have disagreed on the influence of the United Fruit Company, the potential role of Soviet influence, and the degree to which American officials simply misinterpreted social reform for Soviet backing. Newly declassified [[Central Intelligence Agency]] documents show the United Fruit Company played no major role, that Soviet influence was minimal, and that the Eisenhower administration did not need to be forced into the action by any lobby groups.<ref>Stephen M. Streeter, "Interpreting the 1954 U.S. Intervention in Guatemala: Realist, Revisionist, and Postrevisionist Perspectives." ''History Teacher'' (2000) 34(1): 61-74. Issn: 0018-2745 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]] and  [[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2745(200011)34%3A1%3C61%3AIT1UII%3E2.0.CO%3B2-T Jstor]] </ref>

Scholars have spent a half century debating why the Eisenhower administration helped the Guatemalan army overthrow the Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán left-wing anti-American government in Guatemala in 1954. They have disagreed on the influence of the United Fruit Company, the potential role of Soviet influence, and the degree to which American officials simply misinterpreted social reform for Soviet backing. Newly declassified [[Central Intelligence Agency]] documents show the United Fruit Company played no major role, that Soviet influence was minimal, and that the Eisenhower administration did not need to be forced into the action by any lobby groups.<ref>Stephen M. Streeter, "Interpreting the 1954 U.S. Intervention in Guatemala: Realist, Revisionist, and Postrevisionist Perspectives." ''History Teacher'' (2000) 34(1): 61-74. Issn: 0018-2745 Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]] and  [[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2745(200011)34%3A1%3C61%3AIT1UII%3E2.0.CO%3B2-T Jstor]] </ref>

Arbenz was elected without a secret ballot. He considered himself a communist and joined the Communist Party in 1957. His land reform, designed by the Communist Party, was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, which he then purged. His regime openly praised Stalin, relied on the communists for key decisions, and received arms from the Soviet

Arbenz was elected without a secret ballot. He considered himself a communist and joined the [[Communist Party]] in 1957. His land reform, designed by the Communist Party, was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, which he then purged. His regime openly praised Stalin, relied on the communists for key decisions, and received arms from the Soviet

bloc.<ref>Piero Gleijeses, Shattered Hope: The Guatemalan Revolution and the United States, 1944-1954

bloc.<ref>Piero Gleijeses, Shattered Hope: The Guatemalan Revolution and the United States, 1944-1954

(Princeton University Press, 1991), pp84, 147, 145, 155, 181-2, a virtual hagiography of Arbenz.</ref> He killed hundreds of his opponents.<ref>“Antecedentes Inmediatos (1944-1961): El derrocamiento de Arbenz y la intervención militar de

(Princeton University Press, 1991), pp84, 147, 145, 155, 181-2, a virtual hagiography of Arbenz.</ref> He killed hundreds of his opponents.<ref>“Antecedentes Inmediatos (1944-1961): El derrocamiento de Arbenz y la intervención militar de

== Also See ==

== Also See ==

 

* [[Gallery of American Heroes]]

*[[Gallery of American Heroes]]

* [[Anti-Communist]]

== References ==

== References ==

[[Category:Cold War]]

[[Category:Cold War]]

[[Category:United States Veterans]]

[[Category:United States Veterans]]