Changes

==Canonical status==

==Canonical status==

Ezra and Nehemiah (1 and 2 Esdras) are accepted by both Catholics and Protestants as canonical. Some sources saying that Church councils such as the [[Third Council of Carthage (397)]] and the [[Council of Trent]] (1546) did not accept 1 and 2 Esdras, are using the modern system of book names and are referring to the two books formerly known as 3 and 4 Esdras. In older Catholic Bibles the books called 1 and 2 Esdras are now, in more recent editions such as ''The New American Bible, Revised Edition'' NABRE, more commonly called Ezra and Nehemiah. The second two of the four books (sometimes known as 3 and 4 Esdras, sometimes known as 1 and 2 Esdras) are not accepted by either Catholics or Protestants.

Ezra and Nehemiah (1 and 2 Esdras) are accepted by both Catholics and Protestants as canonical. Some sources say that Church councils such as the [[Third Council of Carthage (397)]] and the [[Council of Trent]] (1546) did not accept 1 and 2 Esdras, but these sources are using the modern system of book names and are referring to the two books formerly known as 3 and 4 Esdras. In older Catholic Bibles the books called 1 and 2 Esdras are now, in more recent editions such as ''The New American Bible, Revised Edition'' NABRE, more commonly called Ezra and Nehemiah. The second two of the four books (sometimes known as 3 and 4 Esdras, sometimes known as 1 and 2 Esdras) are not accepted by either Catholics or Protestants.

While 3 and 4 Esdras are not accepted by Catholics or Protestants, some Eastern Orthodox Christians accept one or the other of them.

While 3 and 4 Esdras are not accepted by Catholics or Protestants, some Eastern Orthodox Christians accept one or the other of them. The core of the book of 2 Esdras, the "Jewish Apocalypse of Ezra", 2 Esdras 3-14, is canonical scripture in the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Church]].

[[1 Esdras]] is found today in standard editions of the Greek Bible in the Septuagint (Old Testament), but 2 Esdras (4 Esdras) is not.

[[1 Esdras]] is found today in standard editions of the Greek Bible in the Septuagint (Old Testament), but 2 Esdras (4 Esdras, the ''Apocalypse of Ezra'') is not.

See [http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/septuagint/ Elpenor's Bilingual (Greek / English) Old Testament. Greek original according to the text used by the Church of Greece. English translation by L.C.L. Brenton, published side by side] —''scroll down the site page to see table of contents''.

See [http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/septuagint/ Elpenor's Bilingual (Greek / English) Old Testament. Greek original according to the text used by the Church of Greece. English translation by L.C.L. Brenton, published side by side] —''scroll down the site page to see table of contents''.

===Author===

===Author===

Critics have widely debated the origin of the book. Hidden under two layers of translation and probably the work of more than one writer, it is difficult to determine whether the primary Jewish author hailed from Alexandria, Jerusalem, Rome, or some other location. Although it claims to have been written by Ezra/Salathiel around 400 B.C., internal evidence suggests a much later date, probably late A.D. first century, with other sections possibly added even later.

Critics have widely debated the origin of the book. It has been questioned whether this apocalypse was written by one author. Hidden under two layers of translation and probably the work of more than one writer, it is difficult to determine whether the primary Jewish author hailed from Alexandria, Jerusalem, Rome, or some other location. Although it claims to have been written by Ezra/Salathiel around 400 B.C., internal evidence suggests a much later date, probably late A.D. first century, with other sections possibly added even later.

It has been questioned whether this apocalypse was written by one author. Kalisch (''Das 4te Buch Esra,'' Göttingen, 1889) tried to prove that it had five different sources; his views were largely adopted by De Faye and by Charles. But Gunkel rightly calls attention to the fact that the uniform character of the book forbids its reduction to several independent documents, and that its repetitions and slight discrepancies are a peculiarity of the author in dealing with his complicated problems. Closely akin to this book is the Apocalypse of Baruch; it has therefore been suggested that both might have been written by the same author. Although this can not be proved, it is at least certain that both books were composed at about the same time, and that one of them was the prototype of the other.

Kalisch (''Das 4te Buch Esra,'' Göttingen, 1889) tried to prove that it had five different sources; his views were largely adopted by De Faye and by Charles. Gunkel, however, rightly calls attention to the fact that the uniform character of the book does not allow its reduction to several independent documents, pointing out that its repetitions and slight discrepancies are the author's own peculiarity in dealing with his complicated problems. The ''Apocalypse of Baruch'' is closely akin to this book; and therefore it has been suggested that both of them might have been written by the same author. While this cannot be proved, it is certain that both books were composed at about the same time, and that one of them was the prototype of the other.

It is an open question among critics whether even the main body of the book—apart from the chapters found only in the Latin version—has a single author. Some see evidence of no fewer than five hands at work on the text. Others argue that, except for the apparently late Christian (?) interpolations, the book is most certainly written by one author. Even the "Christian" chapters are defended by some commentators as representing a Jewish concept of the Messiah as a supernatural being, as occasionally appears in later ''[[Midrash]]im'' and in the [[Talmud]]ic rabbinical tradition.

Apart from the chapters found only in the Latin version, it is an open question among critics whether even the main body of the book has a single author. Some see in the text evidence of no fewer than five hands at work, except for the apparently late Christian (?) interpolations. Some commentators even defend the "Christian" chapters as representing an authentic Jewish concept of the Messiah as a supernatural being, as occasionally can be seen in later ''[[Midrash]]im'' and in the [[Talmud]]ic rabbinical tradition.

The author of II Esdras, also called "the prophet Ezra," in all probability, as shown by Wellhausen (''Skizzen und Vorarbeiten,'' vi. 248 ''and following''), had before him the Baruch Apocalypse, written under the impression of the destruction of the Temple by the Romans; he reasons more on the general problems of sin and death and on the design of God regarding the few that are saved than on the national problem of Israel's adversity and the prosperity of the heathen. In the controversy between the schools of Shammai and of Hillel as to whether, in view of the prevalence of sin and sorrow, "is it good for man to be born or not" ( ; 'Er. 13b), the author sides with the pessimistic view of Shammai: "It would be better if we were not born than to live in sin and suffer, not knowing why" (II Esdras 4:12). In the same light he views the final judgment of man by God. "The germ of evil sown into man by the first sin of Adam" ( ; 'Ab. Zarah 22b) results in sin and damnation for the great majority of men—indeed, there is no man who sinneth not—and makes the human destiny far inferior to that of the animal, which needs not fear the great Judgment Day (II Esdras 7:45 [R. V. 115] ''and following''; 8:35). The author recognizes God's love for all His creatures (8:47), in spite of the fact that greater is the number of those lost than of those that are saved (9:15), but for him the end must be unrelenting justice and no mercy nor any intercession of saints; truth and righteousness alone must prevail (7:32-38 [R. V. 102-115]). Here, too, the author differs from the Hillelites, who teach that those souls whose merits and demerits are equal are saved by the mercy of God (who inclines the scale toward mercy), and sides with the Shammaites, who claim that these souls must go through the purgatory of the Gehenna fire before they are admitted into paradise (Sanh. xiii. 4; R. H. 16b). In another respect II Esdras (see 3:30, 9:22 ''and following'', 12:34, 13:37 ''and following'') manifests the spirit of the Shammaites in finding Messianic salvation granted only to the remnant of Israel, for it is Eliezer the Shammaite who, in opposition to the school of Hillel, denies all Gentiles a share in the world to come (Tosef., Sanh. xiii. 2).

The author of II Esdras, also called "the prophet Ezra," in all probability had before him the Baruch Apocalypse, as shown by Wellhausen (''Skizzen und Vorarbeiten,'' vi. 248 ''and following''), written under the impression of the destruction of the Temple by the Romans; he reasons less on the national problem of Israel's adversity and the prosperity of the heathen, and  more on the general problems of sin and death and on the design of God regarding the few that are saved. As to the question, "is it good for man to be born or not" ( ; 'Er. 13b), in view of the prevalence of sin and sorrow, in the controversy between the schools of Shammai and of Hillel the author sides with the pessimistic view of Shammai: "It would be better if we were not born than to live in sin and suffer, not knowing why" (II Esdras 4:12). He views the final judgment of man by God similarly. "The germ of evil sown into man by the first sin of Adam" ( ; 'Ab. Zarah 22b) results in sin and damnation for the great majority of men—indeed, there is no man who sinneth not—and makes the human destiny far inferior to that of the animal, which needs not fear the great Judgment Day (II Esdras 7:45 [R. V. 115] ''and following''; 8:35). In spite of the fact that the number of those lost is greater than the number of those that are saved (9:15), the author recognizes God's love for all His creatures (8:47), but for him the end must be unrelenting justice and no mercy nor any intercession of saints; truth and righteousness alone must prevail (7:32-38 [R. V. 102-115]). In this too, the author does not agree with the Hillelites, who teach that those souls whose merits and demerits are equal are saved by the mercy of God (who inclines the scale toward mercy), and he sides with the Shammaites, who claim that these souls must go through the purgatory of the Gehenna fire before they are admitted into paradise (Sanh. xiii. 4; R. H. 16b). In another respect II Esdras manifests the spirit of the Shammaites in finding Messianic salvation granted only to the remnant of Israel (see 3:30, 9:22 ''and following'', 12:34, 13:37 ''and following''), for, in opposition to the school of Hillel, it is Eliezer the Shammaite who denies all Gentiles a share in the world to come (Tosef., Sanh. xiii. 2).

In regard to the return of the Lost Ten Tribes, also, the author shares the view of Eliezer, in opposition to Akiba, that they will take part in the Messianic redemption, and the very name for the land of the exile of the Ten Tribes used by him, but obviously misunderstood by the translator, rests on the same Biblical words referred to by the two tannaim—"ereẓ aḥeret" (another land; Deut. xxix. 27; II Esd. xiii. 45, comp. 40; Sanh. x. 3; see Arzareth).

The author also shares the view of Eliezer in regard to the return of the Lost Ten Tribes, in opposition to Akiba, that they will take part in the Messianic redemption. However, the very name used by him for the land of the exile of the Ten Tribes, obviously misunderstood by the translator, rests on the same Biblical words referred to by the two tannaim—"ereẓ aḥeret" (another land; Deut. xxix. 27; II Esd. xiii. 45, comp. 40; Sanh. x. 3; see Arzareth).

 

The Messianic era is stated as being 400 years (II Esdras 7:28), based on Psalm 90:15 and Genesis 10:13; (comp. Sanh. 99a; Pesiḳ. R. 1). The apocalyptic sign for the Messianic era, taken from Genesis 25:26, R. V. ("His [Jacob's] hand had hold on Esau's heel"), is especially significant, being interpreted as: "The end of Esau's [Edom's] reign, will form the beginning of Jacob's—that is, the Messiah's—kingdom" (II Esdras 6:8, exactly as in Gen. R. lxiii.; comp. Yalḳ.). Other parallels to rabbinical sayings of the first century are found in Rosenthal, ''Vier Apocryphische Bücher aus der Zeit und Schule R. Akiba's,'' 1885, pp. 39-71. Rosenthal (p. 40) also thinks the five sages, who put into writing the twenty-four canonical and seventy hidden (apocryphal) books dictated by Ezra under divine inspiration during forty days (II Esdras 24:23-46), are an allusion to the work of the five disciples of Johanan ben Zakkai.

===Date and Value===

===Date and Value===

The length of the Messianic time is stated to be 400 years (II Esdras 7:28: this is based upon Psalm 90:15 and Genesis 10:13; comp. Sanh. 99a; Pesiḳ. R. 1). Especially significant is the apocalyptic sign for the Messianic era taken from Genesis 25:26, R. V. ("His [Jacob's] hand had hold on Esau's heel"), which is interpreted: "The end of Esau's [Edom's] reign, will form the beginning of Jacob's—that is, the Messiah's—kingdom" (II Esdras 6:8, exactly as in Gen. R. lxiii.; comp. Yalḳ.). For other parallels to rabbinical sayings of the first century see Rosenthal, ''Vier Apocryphische Bücher aus der Zeit und Schule R. Akiba's,'' 1885, pp. 39-71. Rosenthal also thinks (ibid. p. 40) that the five sages who during forty days put into writing the twenty-four canonical and seventy hidden (apocryphal) books dictated by Ezra under inspiration (II Esdras 24:23-46) reflect the work of the five disciples of Johanan ben Zakkai.

The Greek form of this book in the Septuagint does not have the first two chapters of 2 Esdras which appear in the Latin version of the book. For this reason most scholars hold Chapters 1 and 2 of the Latin and English versions to be of Christian origin (probably second century), because they assert God's rejection of the Jews and speak of the the Messiah in Christian terms: they describe the rejection of the Jews in favor of the Christians in words resembling Christian theological language of the second and third centuries.<blockquote>"I gathered you as a hen gathers her brood under her wings, but now, what shall I do to you? I will cast you out from my presence." (1:30) —Compare Matthew 23:37; Luke13:34; Deuteronomy 32:10-18.</blockquote>

This section also contains a vision of the Messiah as the Son of God who ministers to the martyred saints in heaven:<blockquote>"Then I said to the angel, 'Who is that young man who places crowns on them and puts palms in their hands?' He answered and said to me, 'He is the Son of God, whom they confessed in the world.'" (2:46-47) —Compare Revelation 6:9-11; Daniel 7:13-14, 27.</blockquote>Because of their apparently Christian character, many scholars and students of the Bible regard these first two chapters as late second or third century Christian additions to the work.

The final two chapters of 2 Ezra, 15 and 16, found in the Latin version, are not in the Eastern Greek texts. These chapters which predict wars led by the Messiah, called "son of God", and harshly rebuke sinners at length, may be Jewish; they date from the middle of the third century. Many also suggest that these chapters date from a much later period (the late second half of the third century?) and may be Christian in origin, possibly that they were added at the same time as the first two chapters of the Latin version. It is also possible that they are actually Jewish in origin, having been found in some Greek manuscripts which most scholars agree were translated from a Hebrew original.

 

 

The Greek form of this book in the Septuagint does not have the first two chapters of 2 Esdras which appear in the Latin version of the book. For this reason most scholars hold  Chapters 1 and 2 of the Latin and English versions are them to be of Christian origin (probably second century), of Christian origin, because they speak of the the Messiah in Christian terms and assert God's rejection of the Jews and describe the rejection of the Jews in favor of the Christians. in words resembling Christian theological language of the second and third centuries.<blockquote>"I gathered you as a hen gathers her brood under her wings, but now, what shall I do to you? I will cast you out from my presence." (1:30) —Compare Matthew 23:37; Luke13:34; Deuteronomy 32:10-18.</blockquote>

 

The final two chapters Chapters 15 and 16, of 2 Ezra found in the Latin version are not in the Eastern Greek texts. . These chapters which predict wars predict wars led by the Messiah (called "son of God") and and harshly rebuke sinners rebuke sinners at length, may be Jewish; they date from the middle or the second half of the third century. Many suggest that these chapters also date from a much later period (late third century?) and may be Christian in origin, possibly that they were added at the same time as the first two chapters of the Latin version. It is also possible that they are actually Jewish in origin, having been found in some Greek manuscripts which most scholars agree were translated from a Hebrew original.

==Lost verses==

==Lost verses==

Most Latin editions trace their common origin to one early manuscript, Codex Sangermanensis, which was missing an entire page, a large lacuna (a section of missing text) of about 70 verses between 7:36 and 7:37. An 1895 published critical edition restored the lost verses, numbered 7:36 to 7:106, with the verses formerly numbered 7:37–7:69 in the defective manuscripts renumbered to 7:107–7:137.

Most Latin editions are tracable to a common origin, to one early manuscript, Codex Sangermanensis, which was missing an entire page, a large lacuna (a section of missing text) of about 70 verses between 7:36 and 7:37. An 1895 published critical edition restored the lost verses, numbered 7:36 to 7:106, with the verses formerly numbered 7:37–7:69 in the defective manuscripts being renumbered to 7:107–7:137.

==Purpose==

==Purpose==

The author wishes to console himself and his people in a time of great distress. He struggles with the deepest religious problems: What is the origin of suffering and evil in the world? Why does the All-Righteous create men, who He knows will suffer, or will do wrong and therefore perish? Why does man possess the mind or reason which makes him conscious of these things? Throughout these struggles the writer strives for assurance of salvation. Since this is reserved for some future era, he lays much stress on eschatology. Confidence in God's justice underlies all his thoughts.

The author wishes to console himself and his people in a time of great distress. He struggles with the deepest religious problems: What is the origin of suffering and evil in the world? Why does the All-Righteous create men, who He knows will suffer, or will do wrong and therefore perish? While for Job the question is why God imposed what appears to be clearly unfair suffering on a righteous man (Job), in 2 Esdras it is the question of why God allows so many people to be eternally damned, and why he has allowed his beloved people of Israel to suffer. Ezra is deeply concerned with fairness, justice, and with [[theodicy]], the problem of evil—why good people suffer, and why evil prospers, if God is both almighty and just. Why does man possess the mind or reason which makes him conscious of these things? Throughout these struggles the writer strives for assurance of salvation. Since this is reserved for some future era, he lays much stress on eschatology. Confidence in God's justice underlies all his thoughts. The answer given to Ezra is like that given to Job: God is absolutely sovereign, and his ways are not to be questioned by mere humans.

 

While for Job the question is why what appears to be clearly unfair suffering is imposed by God on a righteous man (Job), in 2 Esdras it is the question of why God allows so many people to be eternally damned, and why he has allowed his beloved people of Israel to suffer. Ezra is deeply concerned with fairness, justice, and with [[theodicy]], the problem of evil—why good people suffer, and why evil prospers, if God is both almighty and just. The answer given to Ezra is like that given to Job: God is absolutely sovereign, and his ways are not to be questioned by mere humans.

==Usage==

==Usage==

The book is considered an outstanding and valuable example of Jewish apocalyptic literature. It was widely cited by early Church Fathers, especially Ambrose of Milan. The core of the book, the "Jewish Apocalypse of Ezra", 2 Esdras 3-14, is canonical scripture in the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Church]].

The book is considered an outstanding and valuable example of Jewish apocalyptic literature. It was widely cited by early Church Fathers, especially Ambrose of Milan.

The ''introitus'' of the traditional Requiem in the Catholic Church is drawn from 2 Esdras 2:34-35:

The ''introitus'' of the traditional Requiem in the Catholic Church is drawn from 2 Esdras 2:34-35: