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}}The '''War of 1812''' was fought between the United States and Britain and lasted from June 18, 1812 until February 18, 1815. Americans had various grievances against Britain: Suppressing American trade with France, impressing (seizing) sailors with U.S. papers, and supplying and inciting hostile Indian tribes in the West. The specific grievances counted for less than the feeling that many Americans had that Britain did not respect U.S. sovereignty. It was "a war for honour, like that of the Greeks against Troy," as Virginia [[Republicans (Jeffersonian)| Republican]] John Taylor put it.<ref>Wood, Gordon S. ''Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815'' (Oxford History of the United States Book 4) (p. 313). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition. p. 658-659.</ref> For its part, Britain felt that emergency measures were justified by the struggle against [[Napoleon]].

}}The '''War of 1812''' was fought between the United States and Britain and lasted from June 18, 1812 until February 18, 1815. Americans had various grievances against Britain: Suppressing American trade with France, impressing (seizing) sailors with U.S. papers, and supplying and inciting hostile Indian tribes in the West. The specific grievances counted for less than the feeling that many Americans had that Britain did not respect U.S. sovereignty. It was "a war for honour, like that of the Greeks against Troy," as Virginia [[Republicans (Jeffersonian)| Republican]] John Taylor put it.<ref>Wood, Gordon S. ''Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815'' (Oxford History of the United States Book 4) (p. 313). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition. p. 658-659.</ref> For its part, Britain felt that emergency measures were justified by the struggle against [[Napoleon]].

In November 1806, Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree to embargo Britain. In January 1807, the British responded with "Orders in Council" that banned the vessels of neutral nations, including the U.S., from trading with France and its allies. To restrict U.S. trade to Britain would restore colonial trade relations. To President [[Thomas Jefferson]], this was tantamount to a denial of U.S. sovereignty. Congress responded by enacting the [[Embargo of 1807]]. The embargo hurt the U.S. economy, especially in New England, and was unpopular. After it collapsed in 1809, President [[James Madison]] tried other forms of economic pressure to overturn the Orders in Council. In July 1811, he told Congress that if there was no diplomatic solution by November, he would call a special session to approve preparations for war. A military buildup was authorized in January 1812. Madison requested war on June 1, which Congress declared on June 18. Critics called it "Mr. Madison's War," while supporters rallied under the banner, "Free trade and sailors' rights."<ref>The banner "Free trade and sailors' rights" was first hoisted on the USS Essex by Captain David Porter on July 2, 1812. (See ''Free Trade and Sailors' Rights in the War of 1812'' by Paul A. Gilje (p. 1))</ref>

With the [[Napoleonic Wars]] raging, the British issued "Orders in Council" in January 1807 that banned the vessels of neutral nations, including the U.S., from trading with France and its allies. To restrict U.S. trade to Britain would restore colonial trade relations. To President [[Thomas Jefferson]], this was tantamount to a denial of U.S. sovereignty. Congress responded by enacting the [[Embargo of 1807]]. The embargo hurt the U.S. economy, especially in New England, and was unpopular. After it collapsed in 1809, President [[James Madison]] tried other forms of economic pressure to overturn the Orders in Council. In July 1811, he told Congress that if there was no diplomatic solution by November, he would call a special session to approve preparations for war. A military buildup was authorized in January 1812. Madison requested war on June 1, which Congress declared on June 18. Critics called it "Mr. Madison's War," while supporters rallied under the banner, "Free trade and sailors' rights."<ref>The banner "Free trade and sailors' rights" was first hoisted on the USS Essex by Captain David Porter on July 2, 1812. (See ''Free Trade and Sailors' Rights in the War of 1812'' by Paul A. Gilje (p. 1))</ref>

At the beginning of the war, the U.S. had fewer than 7,000 soldiers and only sixteen naval vessels.<ref name=Woods659>Wood, Gordon S. ''Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815'' (Oxford History of the United States Book 4) (p. 313). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition. p. 659.</ref> The British has over 250,000 soldiers and over 600 vessels in active service.<ref name="Woods659" /> The war began with a disastrous U.S. invasion of Ontario led by William Hull. Hull's force surrendered and a British counteroffensive took Detroit on August 16. Hull's retreat and surrender sparked a revival of the Federalist party in the fall elections. Madison won reelection with only 50 percent of the popular vote. The Battle of the Thames in October 1813 was the turning point of the war. The fighting at sea was characterized by a tight British blockade that shut down most American shipping, together with some dramatic naval battles that added glory to the small U.S. Navy. When the Napoleonic Wars ended, the British could move large forces to North America and go on the offensive. They attacked Washington, New York state, and New Orleans. All these invasions were abject failures. By late 1814, with Napoleon gone, Britain friends with France, and the Indian tribes defeated, the causes for the war had largely vanished. A treaty was agreed to that left the prewar boundaries unchanged.   

At the beginning of the war, the U.S. had fewer than 7,000 soldiers and only sixteen naval vessels.<ref name=Woods659>Wood, Gordon S. ''Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815'' (Oxford History of the United States Book 4) (p. 313). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition. p. 659.</ref> The British has over 250,000 soldiers and over 600 vessels in active service.<ref name="Woods659" /> The war began with a disastrous U.S. invasion of Ontario led by William Hull. Hull's force surrendered and a British counteroffensive took Detroit on August 16. Hull's retreat and surrender sparked a revival of the Federalist party in the fall elections. Madison won reelection with only 50 percent of the popular vote. The Battle of the Thames in October 1813 was the turning point of the war. The fighting at sea was characterized by a tight British blockade that shut down most American shipping, together with some dramatic naval battles that added glory to the small U.S. Navy. When the Napoleonic Wars ended, the British could move large forces to North America and go on the offensive. They attacked Washington, New York state, and New Orleans. All these invasions were abject failures. By late 1814, with Napoleon gone, Britain friends with France, and the Indian tribes defeated, the causes for the war had largely vanished. A treaty was agreed to that left the prewar boundaries unchanged.   

With Britain engaged in a life-and-death war with France, the efforts of a small country like the U.S. to remain neutral were futile. The British Royal Navy controlled the seas and stopped American shipments headed to France. Worse, the Royal Navy, needing more men, boarded American merchant ships and "impressed" (seized) 6,000 sailors who were American citizens but had been born in Britain. Finally Americans were convinced that the British were using their base in western Canada to supply and encourage Indian raids on American frontier settlements.  

With Britain engaged in a life-and-death war with France, the efforts of a small country like the U.S. to remain neutral were futile. The British Royal Navy controlled the seas and stopped American shipments headed to France. Worse, the Royal Navy, needing more men, boarded American merchant ships and "impressed" (seized) 6,000 sailors who were American citizens but had been born in Britain. Finally Americans were convinced that the British were using their base in western Canada to supply and encourage Indian raids on American frontier settlements.  

The British action that irked American leaders most was the Orders in Council, issued in January 1807. These orders banned U.S trade with France and its allies. Restricting trade to Britain alone would make the U.S. a dependency of Britain and restore the earlier colonial trading relationship. Both Jefferson and Madison leaned toward France and against Britain in the Napoleonic Wars. As a matter of national honor, they were determined that the U.S. would assert its right to follow a foreign policy of its own choosing. When a British warship in June 1807 attacked and disabled the [[USS Chesapeake|USS ''Chesapeake'']] and impressed several crewmen, a general wave of indignation rose in which even the maritime interests joined. This was an insult to the flag. Jefferson decided against war and instead tried to punish Britain by cutting off American trade. This annoyed the British some but outraged New England, where shipping was shut down and the economy badly hurt.

The British action that irked American leaders most was the Orders in Council, issued in January 1807. These orders banned U.S trade with France and its allies. They were issued in response of to Napoleon's Berlin Decree of November 1806, which embargoed Britain. Both blockades were illegal in international law as neither country had sufficient naval forces to enforce them systematically. Restricting trade to Britain alone would make the U.S. a dependency of Britain and restore the earlier colonial trading relationship. Both Jefferson and Madison leaned toward France and against Britain in the Napoleonic Wars. As a matter of national honor, they were determined that the U.S. would assert its right to follow a foreign policy of its own choosing. When a British warship in June 1807 attacked and disabled the [[USS Chesapeake|USS ''Chesapeake'']] and impressed several crewmen, a general wave of indignation rose in which even the maritime interests joined. This was an insult to the flag. Jefferson decided against war and instead tried to punish Britain by cutting off American trade. This annoyed the British some but outraged New England, where shipping was shut down and the economy badly hurt.

Madison tried to negotiate a revocation of the ban on U.S. trade with France. Congress passed "Macon's Bill No. 2" in 1810 that promised if Britain or France allowed American shipping, the U.S. would put an embargo on the other country. [[Napoleon]] tricked the U.S. into believing, falsely, that France had dropped its restrictions. In February 1810, Madison slapped an embargo on trade to Britain, which was by far the largest trading partner of the U.S. Despite the renewed embargo, war remained far from the minds of America's leaders. In April, Congress voted to reduce the size of both the army and the navy.<ref>Wood, Gordon S. ''Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815'' (Oxford History of the United States Book 4). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition. p. 671.</ref> In the 1810 midterm election, many older congressmen retired and there was a generational shift. In the following Congress, sixty three of 142 House members were newly elected.<ref>Wood, p. 660.</ref> The new Congress was more hawkish and revisited the old disputes with fresh eyes. In July 1811, Madison told Congress he would call a special session in November to consider preparations for war. By the end of the November, the administration and congressional leaders had privately reached a consensus that country needed to prepare for war.<ref name="warhawk">Brown, Roger H., "The War Hawks of 1812: An Historical Myth", ''Indiana Magazine of History'', Vol. 60, No. 2 (June 1964), pp. 137-151.</ref>

Madison tried to negotiate a revocation of the ban on U.S. trade with France. Congress passed "Macon's Bill No. 2" in 1810 that promised if Britain or France allowed American shipping, the U.S. would put an embargo on the other country. [[Napoleon]] tricked the U.S. into believing, falsely, that France had dropped its restrictions. In February 1810, Madison slapped an embargo on trade to Britain, which was by far the largest trading partner of the U.S. Despite the renewed embargo, war remained far from the minds of America's leaders. In April, Congress voted to reduce the size of both the army and the navy.<ref>Wood, Gordon S. ''Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815'' (Oxford History of the United States Book 4). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition. p. 671.</ref> In the 1810 midterm election, many older congressmen retired and there was a generational shift. In the following Congress, sixty three of 142 House members were newly elected.<ref>Wood, p. 660.</ref> The new Congress was more hawkish and revisited the old disputes with fresh eyes. In July 1811, Madison told Congress he would call a special session in November to consider preparations for war. The only grievance Madison mentioned in his November 5 "war message" to Congress was the Orders in Council.<ref>Hickey, Donard R., ''The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict'', p. 29-30.</ref> By the end of the November, the administration and congressional leaders had privately reached a consensus that country needed to prepare for war.<ref name="warhawk">Brown, Roger H., "The War Hawks of 1812: An Historical Myth", ''Indiana Magazine of History'', Vol. 60, No. 2 (June 1964), pp. 137-151.</ref> The report of the House Foreign Relations Committee on November 29 also focused on the Orders in Council, although it mentioned impressment as well.<ref>Hickey, p. 30.</ref>

A military buildup was approved in January 1812. The Republican leaders were opposed to a standing army, so this action was effectively a decision for war. In early April, a package of measures were approved that were considered preliminary to war. Madison sent a war message to Congress on June 1 listing all the complaints against Britain and asking for a declaration of war. "Under pretended blockades, without the presence of an adequate force and without the practicality of applying one, our commerce has been plundered in every sea, the great staples of our country have been cut off from their legitimate markets, and a destructive blow aimed at our agricultural and maritime interest," according to Madison's message. Madison's most passionate words emphasized the plight of impressed sailors, the "thousands of American citizens...torn from their country and from everything dear to them." Although sailors' rights had played a minor role in pre-war politics and diplomacy, they would be remembered as a central theme of the war.<ref name=gilje>Gilje, Paul A., ''Free Trade and Sailors' Rights in the War of 1812'', p. 7.</ref>

A military buildup was approved in January 1812. This recreated the regular Army that Congress had voted to dismantle in 1810. Madison and other Republican leaders still objected to this institution. They argued for a summer offensive using militia and short term volunteers.<ref>Hickey, p. 32.</ref> In early April, a package of measures were approved that were considered preliminary to war. Madison sent a war message to Congress on June 1 listing all the complaints against Britain and asking for a declaration of war. "Under pretended blockades, without the presence of an adequate force and without the practicality of applying one, our commerce has been plundered in every sea, the great staples of our country have been cut off from their legitimate markets, and a destructive blow aimed at our agricultural and maritime interest," according to Madison's message. Madison's most passionate words emphasized the plight of impressed sailors, the "thousands of American citizens...torn from their country and from everything dear to them." Although sailors' rights had played a minor role in pre-war politics and diplomacy, they would be remembered as a central theme of the war.<ref name=gilje>Gilje, Paul A., ''Free Trade and Sailors' Rights in the War of 1812'', p. 7.</ref>

   

   

On June 4, the House of Representatives voted 79 to 49 for war. In the U.S. Senate, the outcome was in doubt for a time and the final vote was 19 to 13. With New England vehemently opposed, Congress declared war on June 18. Support for war was strongest in the West and in the South, the regions least likely to suffer from British retaliation. For New England, trade was about economics and jobs. For the rest of the country, it was a question of the nation's honor. By the time war was declared, the grievances it was based on were already outdated. In May 1812, Britain had offered to license U.S. merchant ships on the same basis that British ships were licensed. In June, it had revoked the Orders in Council altogether. At the time war was declared, news of these concessions had not yet arrived in the U.S. But American leaders did know that Britain was in the process of forming a new government which would reformulate policy on this issue.

On June 4, the House of Representatives voted 79 to 49 for war. In the U.S. Senate, the outcome was in doubt for a time and the final vote was 19 to 13. With New England vehemently opposed, Congress declared war on June 18. Support for war was strongest in the West and in the South, the regions least likely to suffer from British retaliation. For New England, trade was about economics and jobs. For the rest of the country, it was a question of the nation's honor. By the time war was declared, the grievances it was based on were already outdated. In May 1812, Britain had offered to license U.S. merchant ships on the same basis that British ships were licensed. In June, it had revoked the Orders in Council altogether. At the time war was declared, news of these concessions had not yet arrived in the U.S. But American leaders did know that Britain was in the process of forming a new government which would reformulate policy on this issue.

===The myth of the War Hawks===

===The role of the War Hawks===

There is a persistent myth that the United States was pushed into war a group of congressman called the War Hawks. This group consisted of about a dozen congressmen. It was led by Speaker of the House [[Henry Clay]] of Kentucky and by [[John C. Calhoun]] of South Carolina, chairman of the House Foreign Relations Committee. Most of the War Hawks were comparatively young and first elected in 1810. As the chronology above illustrates, every step in the march toward war was initiated by Madison and the executive branch. In this era, congressional activity focused on responding to proposals made by the executive. There was no opportunity for a minority faction like the War Hawks to initiate policy.

Various historians argue that the United States was pushed into war a group of congressman called the War Hawks. This group consisted of about a dozen congressmen, most elected in 1810. "The War Congress contained a new faction, one capable of providing leadership and firmness that had hitherto been lacking," according to Donald Hickey.<ref>Hickey, Donard R., ''The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict'', p. 29.</ref> This faction was led by Speaker of the House [[Henry Clay]] of Kentucky and by [[John C. Calhoun]] of South Carolina, chairman of the House Foreign Relations Committee. The War Hawk thesis remains controversial among historians. As the chronology above illustrates, every step in the march toward war was initiated by Madison and the executive branch. In this era, congressional activity focused on responding to proposals made by the executive. There was no opportunity for a minority faction like the War Hawks to initiate policy.

Since the War Hawks came from the West and South, historians who blame them for the war have further argued that they were motivated by grievances specific to these two regions. Westerners were supposedly fixated by the prospect of land in Canada, while Southerners eyed Spanish Florida. This interpretation ignores the entire public debate of 1811 to 1812. Virtually every speech in Congress on relations with Britain during this period acknowledges that trade and sailors' rights were the central issues.<ref name=Gilje>Gilje, Paul A. ''[https://books.google.com.hk/books?id=zWURc-BfahsC&dq= Free Trade and Sailors' Rights in the War of 1812]'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2013, ISBN: 9781107607828, p. 147.</ref> The idea of a War Hawk faction comes from Federalist congressmen who listened to the fiery anti-British speeches of Clay, Calhoun, and others. They concluded, or hoped, that the Republicans were divided. An analysis of private letters does not support the view that the Republican leadership was split into pro-war and pro-peace factions.<ref name="warhawk" />

Since the War Hawks came from the West and South, historians who blame them for the war have further argued that they were motivated by grievances specific to these two regions. Westerners were supposedly fixated by the prospect of land in Canada, while Southerners eyed Spanish Florida. This interpretation ignores the entire public debate of 1811 to 1812. Virtually every speech in Congress on relations with Britain during this period acknowledges that trade and sailors' rights were the central issues.<ref name=Gilje>Gilje, Paul A. ''[https://books.google.com.hk/books?id=zWURc-BfahsC&dq= Free Trade and Sailors' Rights in the War of 1812]'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2013, ISBN: 9781107607828, p. 147.</ref> The idea of a War Hawk faction comes from Federalist congressmen who listened to the fiery anti-British speeches of Clay, Calhoun, and others. They concluded, or hoped, that the Republicans were divided. An analysis of private letters does not support the view that the Republican leadership was split into pro-war and pro-peace factions.<ref name="warhawk" />

==The opposing forces==

==The opposing forces==

[[Image:7648ruy6g.gif|right|thumb|[[James Madison]] was president of the United States during the war. He had been Thomas Jefferson's secretary of state.]]

[[Image:7648ruy6g.gif|right|thumb|[[James Madison]] was president of the United States during the war. He had been Thomas Jefferson's secretary of state.]]

At the outbreak of the war, the United States had a total population of about 7.7 million people and was very unprepared for war. A series of border forts garrisoned by very small Regular Army detachments stretched along the Canadian boundary: Fort Mackinac, on the straits between Lake Michigan and Lake Huron; Fort Dearborn, on the site of what is now Chicago; Fort Detroit; and Fort Niagara, at the mouth of the Niagara River on Lake Ontario.  The actual strength of the Regular Army in June 1812 totaled 11,744 officers and men, including an estimated 5,000 recruits enlisted for the additional force authorized the preceding January, in contrast to an overall authorized strength of 35,600. The weak U.S. Navy consisted of 20 vessels: the three large 44-gun frigates such as [[USS Constitution|USS ''Constitution'']], three smaller frigates of the [[USS Constellation|''Constellation'']] class rated at 38 guns, and fourteen others. Jefferson's policy had been to build large numbers of small gunboats which could defend American harbors but which could not sail long distances and thus could not be an offensive weapon. The gunboats were a total failure and historians have been highly critical of Jefferson's policy.<ref>Merrill D. Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography'' (1975) pp 836-39.</ref>

At the outbreak of the war, the United States had a population of about 7.7 million people and was very unprepared for war. A series of border forts garrisoned by very small Regular Army detachments stretched along the Canadian boundary: Fort Mackinac, on the straits between Lake Michigan and Lake Huron; Fort Dearborn, on the site of what is now Chicago; Fort Detroit; and Fort Niagara, at the mouth of the Niagara River on Lake Ontario.  The actual strength of the Regular Army in June 1812 totaled 11,744 officers and men, including an estimated 5,000 recruits enlisted for the additional force authorized the preceding January, in contrast to an overall authorized strength of 35,600. The weak U.S. Navy consisted of 20 vessels: the three large 44-gun frigates such as [[USS Constitution|USS ''Constitution'']], three smaller frigates of the [[USS Constellation|''Constellation'']] class rated at 38 guns, and fourteen others. Jefferson's policy had been to build large numbers of small gunboats which could defend American harbors but which could not sail long distances and thus could not be an offensive weapon. The gunboats were a total failure and historians have been highly critical of Jefferson's policy.<ref>Merrill D. Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography'' (1975) pp 836-39.</ref>

        

        

The war hawks in Congress hurriedly tried to remedy years of neglecting the military. In March 1812 it had tried to place the Army’s supply system on a more adequate footing by establishing a Quartermaster Department on the military staff in place of the inefficient and costly military agent system. At the same time Congress created the Office of the Commissary General of Purchases in the War Department, and for the first time since the Revolution the Army’s supply system was placed under the exclusive control of the Secretary of War. In May Congress had made provision for an Ordnance Department responsible for the inspection and testing of all ordnance, cannon balls, shells, and shot; the construction of gun carriages and ammunition wagons; and the preparation and inspection of the "public powder." It enlarged the Corps of Engineers by adding a company of bombardiers, sappers, and miners and expanded and reorganized the Military Academy at West Point. In addition to increasing the Regular Army, Congress had authorized the President to accept volunteer forces and to call upon the states for militia. The difficulty was not planning for an army, but raising one.  

The war hawks in Congress hurriedly tried to remedy years of neglecting the military. In March 1812 it had tried to place the Army’s supply system on a more adequate footing by establishing a Quartermaster Department on the military staff in place of the inefficient and costly military agent system. At the same time Congress created the Office of the Commissary General of Purchases in the War Department, and for the first time since the Revolution the Army’s supply system was placed under the exclusive control of the Secretary of War. In May Congress had made provision for an Ordnance Department responsible for the inspection and testing of all ordnance, cannon balls, shells, and shot; the construction of gun carriages and ammunition wagons; and the preparation and inspection of the "public powder." It enlarged the Corps of Engineers by adding a company of bombardiers, sappers, and miners and expanded and reorganized the Military Academy at West Point. In addition to increasing the Regular Army, Congress had authorized the President to accept volunteer forces and to call upon the states for militia. The difficulty was not planning for an army, but raising one.