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Protagoras:  "And that you may not suppose yourself to be deceived in thinking that all men regard every man as having a share of justice or honesty and of every other political virtue, let me give you a further proof, which is this. In other cases, as you are aware, if a man says that he is a good flute-player, or skilful in any other art in which he has no skill, people either laugh at him or are angry with him, and his relations think that he is mad and go and admonish him; but when honesty is in question, or some other political virtue, even if they know that he is dishonest, yet, if the man comes publicly forward and tells the truth about his dishonesty, then, what in the other case was held by them to be good sense, they now deem to be madness. They say that all men ought to profess honesty whether they are honest or not, and that a man is out of his mind who says anything else. Their notion is, that a man must have some degree of honesty; and that if he has none at all he ought not to be in the world.

Protagoras:  "And that you may not suppose yourself to be deceived in thinking that all men regard every man as having a share of justice or honesty and of every other political virtue, let me give you a further proof, which is this. In other cases, as you are aware, if a man says that he is a good flute-player, or skilful in any other art in which he has no skill, people either laugh at him or are angry with him, and his relations think that he is mad and go and admonish him; but when honesty is in question, or some other political virtue, even if they know that he is dishonest, yet, if the man comes publicly forward and tells the truth about his dishonesty, then, what in the other case was held by them to be good sense, they now deem to be madness. They say that all men ought to profess honesty whether they are honest or not, and that a man is out of his mind who says anything else. Their notion is, that a man must have some degree of honesty; and that if he has none at all he ought not to be in the world.

"I have been showing that they are right in admitting every man as a counsellor about this sort of virtue, as they are of opinion that every man is a partaker of it. And I will now endeavour to show further that they do not conceive this virtue to be given by nature, or to grow spontaneously, but to be a thing which may be taught; and which comes to a man by taking pains. No one would instruct, no one would rebuke, or be angry with those whose calamities they suppose to be due to nature or chance; they do not try to punish or to prevent them from being what they are; they do but pity them. Who is so foolish as to chastise or instruct the ugly, or the diminutive, or the feeble? And for this reason. Because he knows that good and evil of this kind is the work of nature and of chance; whereas if a man is wanting in those good qualities which are attained by study and exercise and teaching, and has only the contrary evil qualities, other men are angry with him, and punish and reprove him-of these evil qualities one is impiety, another injustice, and they may be described generally as the very opposite of political virtue. In such cases any man will be angry with another, and reprimand him,-clearly because he thinks that by study and learning, the virtue in which the other is deficient may be acquired. If you will think, Socrates, of the nature of punishment, you will see at once that in the opinion of mankind virtue may be acquired; no one punishes the evil-doer under the notion, or for the reason, that he has done wrong,—only the unreasonable fury of a beast acts in that manner. But he who desires to inflict rational punishment does not retaliate for a past wrong which cannot be undone; he has regard to the future, and is desirous that the man who is punished, and he who sees him punished, may be deterred from doing wrong again. He punishes for the sake of prevention, thereby clearly implying that virtue is capable of being taught. This is the notion of all who retaliate upon others either privately or publicly. And the Athenians, too, your own citizens, like other men, punish and take vengeance on all whom they regard as evil doers; and hence, we may infer them to be of the number of those who think that virtue may be acquired and taught. Thus far, Socrates, I have shown you clearly enough, if I am not mistaken, that your countrymen are right in admitting the tinker and the cobbler to advise about politics, and also that they deem virtue to be capable of being taught and acquired."

"I have been showing that they are right in admitting every man as a counsellor about this sort of virtue, as they are of opinion that every man is a partaker of it. And I will now endeavour to show further that they do not conceive this virtue to be given by nature, or to grow spontaneously, but to be a thing which may be taught; and which comes to a man by taking pains. No one would instruct, no one would rebuke, or be angry with those whose calamities they suppose to be due to nature or chance; they do not try to punish or to prevent them from being what they are; they do but pity them. Who is so foolish as to chastise or instruct the ugly, or the diminutive, or the feeble? And for this reason. Because he knows that good and evil of this kind is the work of nature and of chance; whereas if a man is wanting in those good qualities which are attained by study and exercise and teaching, and has only the contrary evil qualities, other men are angry with him, and punish and reprove him—of these evil qualities one is impiety, another injustice, and they may be described generally as the very opposite of political virtue. In such cases any man will be angry with another, and reprimand him,—clearly because he thinks that by study and learning, the virtue in which the other is deficient may be acquired. If you will think, Socrates, of the nature of punishment, you will see at once that in the opinion of mankind virtue may be acquired; no one punishes the evil-doer under the notion, or for the reason, that he has done wrong,—only the unreasonable fury of a beast acts in that manner. But he who desires to inflict rational punishment does not retaliate for a past wrong which cannot be undone; he has regard to the future, and is desirous that the man who is punished, and he who sees him punished, may be deterred from doing wrong again. He punishes for the sake of prevention, thereby clearly implying that virtue is capable of being taught. This is the notion of all who retaliate upon others either privately or publicly. And the Athenians, too, your own citizens, like other men, punish and take vengeance on all whom they regard as evil doers; and hence, we may infer them to be of the number of those who think that virtue may be acquired and taught. Thus far, Socrates, I have shown you clearly enough, if I am not mistaken, that your countrymen are right in admitting the tinker and the cobbler to advise about politics, and also that they deem virtue to be capable of being taught and acquired."

''Aeneid'' by Virgil, book VI, trans. John Dryden

''Aeneid'' by Virgil, book VI, trans. John Dryden

His writhen bolt, not shaking empty smoke,

His writhen bolt, not shaking empty smoke,<br>

Down to the deep abyss the flaming felon strook.

Down to the deep abyss the flaming felon strook.<br>

There Tityus was to see, who took his birth

There Tityus was to see, who took his birth<br>

From heav'n, his nursing from the foodful earth.

From heav'n, his nursing from the foodful earth.<br>

Here his gigantic limbs, with large embrace,

Here his gigantic limbs, with large embrace,<br>

Infold nine acres of infernal space.

Infold nine acres of infernal space.<br>

A rav'nous vulture, in his open'd side,

A rav'nous vulture, in his open'd side,<br>

Her crooked beak and cruel talons tried;

Her crooked beak and cruel talons tried;<br>

Still for the growing liver digg'd his breast;

Still for the growing liver digg'd his breast;<br>

The growing liver still supplied the feast;

The growing liver still supplied the feast;<br>

Still are his entrails fruitful to their pains:

Still are his entrails fruitful to their pains:<br>

Th' immortal hunger lasts, th' immortal food remains.

Th' immortal hunger lasts, th' immortal food remains.<br>

Ixion and Perithous I could name,

Ixion and Perithous I could name,<br>

And more Thessalian chiefs of mighty fame.

And more Thessalian chiefs of mighty fame.<br>

High o'er their heads a mold'ring rock is plac'd,

High o'er their heads a mold'ring rock is plac'd,<br>

That promises a fall, and shakes at ev'ry blast.

That promises a fall, and shakes at ev'ry blast.<br>

They lie below, on golden beds display'd;

They lie below, on golden beds display'd;<br>

And genial feasts with regal pomp are made.

And genial feasts with regal pomp are made.<br>

The Queen of Furies by their sides is set,

The Queen of Furies by their sides is set,<br>

And snatches from their mouths th' untasted meat,

And snatches from their mouths th' untasted meat,<br>

Which if they touch, her hissing snakes she rears,

Which if they touch, her hissing snakes she rears,<br>

Tossing her torch, and thund'ring in their ears.

Tossing her torch, and thund'ring in their ears.<br>

Then they, who brothers' better claim disown,

Then they, who brothers' better claim disown,<br>

Expel their parents, and usurp the throne;

Expel their parents, and usurp the throne;<br>

Defraud their clients, and, to lucre sold,

Defraud their clients, and, to lucre sold,<br>

Sit brooding on unprofitable gold;

Sit brooding on unprofitable gold;<br>

Who dare not give, and ev'n refuse to lend

Who dare not give, and ev'n refuse to lend<br>

To their poor kindred, or a wanting friend.

To their poor kindred, or a wanting friend.<br>

Vast is the throng of these; nor less the train

Vast is the throng of these; nor less the train<br>

Of lustful youths, for foul adult'ry slain:

Of lustful youths, for foul adult'ry slain:<br>

Hosts of deserters, who their honor sold,

Hosts of deserters, who their honor sold,<br>

And basely broke their faith for bribes of gold.

And basely broke their faith for bribes of gold.<br>

All these within the dungeon's depth remain,

All these within the dungeon's depth remain,<br>

Despairing pardon, and expecting pain.

Despairing pardon, and expecting pain.<br>

Ask not what pains; nor farther seek to know

Ask not what pains; nor farther seek to know<br>

Their process, or the forms of law below.

Their process, or the forms of law below.<br>

Some roll a weighty stone; some, laid along,

Some roll a weighty stone; some, laid along,<br>

And bound with burning wires, on spokes of wheels are hung

And bound with burning wires, on spokes of wheels are hung<br>

Unhappy Theseus, doom'd for ever there,

Unhappy Theseus, doom'd for ever there,<br>

Is fix'd by fate on his eternal chair;

Is fix'd by fate on his eternal chair;<br>

And wretched Phlegyas warns the world with cries

And wretched Phlegyas warns the world with cries<br>

(Could warning make the world more just or wise):

(Could warning make the world more just or wise):<br>

'Learn righteousness, and dread th' avenging deities.'

'Learn righteousness, and dread th' avenging deities.'<br>

To tyrants others have their country sold,

To tyrants others have their country sold,<br>

Imposing foreign lords, for foreign gold;

Imposing foreign lords, for foreign gold;<br>

Some have old laws repeal'd, new statutes made,

Some have old laws repeal'd, new statutes made,<br>

Not as the people pleas'd, but as they paid;

Not as the people pleas'd, but as they paid;<br>

With incest some their daughters' bed profan'd:

With incest some their daughters' bed profan'd:<br>

All dar'd the worst of ills, and, what they dar'd, attain'd.

All dar'd the worst of ills, and, what they dar'd, attain'd.<br>

Had I a hundred mouths, a hundred tongues,

Had I a hundred mouths, a hundred tongues,<br>

And throats of brass, inspir'd with iron lungs,

And throats of brass, inspir'd with iron lungs,<br>

I could not half those horrid crimes repeat,

I could not half those horrid crimes repeat,<br>

Nor half the punishments those crimes have met.

Nor half the punishments those crimes have met.